tihravy  of  Che  trheclo^ical  ^tminary 

PRINCETON  •  NEW  JERSEY 

PURCHASED  BY  THE 

MRS.  ROBERT  LENOX  KENNEDY 

CHURCH  HISTORY  FUND 

BR  145  .M7  1902  c,l 
Moncrief,  John  Wildman,  185 


A  short  history  of  the 
Christian  church 


A   Short    History 


OF  THE 


CHRISTIAN   CHURCH 


For  Students  and  General  Readers 


JOHN  VV.  HON  GRIEF,  A.M. 

Associate  Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Chicago 


Chicago  New    York  Toronto 

FLEMING  H.  REV  ELL   COMPANY 

M  C  M  1 1 


COPYRIGHT, 

902, 

BY 

F  L  E  M  I  N 

G       H. 

R  K  V 

ELL     COMPANY       1 

April 

TO 
ERI  BAKER  HULBERT,  A.M.,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Dean  of  the  Divinity  School,  Professor  of  Church  History,  Head  of  the 
Department,  The  University  of  Chicago 

MY 

FAITHFUL     FRIEND 

AND     WISE     COUNSELOR 


PREFACE 

There  are  already  many  excellent  general  church 
histories.  But  it  appears  that  there  is  room  for  still 
another  which  shall  be  short,  considerably  different  in 
its  conception,  and  more  elementary.  This  book, 
however,  does  not  challenge  comparison  with  any  of 
its  predecessors.  It  rather  seeks  to  lead  its  readers  to 
those  works  of  the  masters  and  so  to  make  them  nec- 
essary. It  hastens,  moreover,  to  acknowledge  its  deep 
obligations  to  these  works  because  it  has  made  use  of 
their  treasures,  and  so  often  that  it  would  be  quite 
impossible  to  mention  each  particular  instance.  But 
it  is  hoped  that  at  least  a  general  recognition  has  been 
given  to  all  those  upon  which  heavy  contribution  has 
been  laid.  All  this,  perhaps,  in  covering  so  vast  a 
field,  would  go  without  saying. 

The  reader  will,  no  doubt,  be  impressed  with  the 
large  number  of  quotations  in  the  book,  but  as  they 
are  nearly  all  from  the  original  or  the  best  secondary 
sources  it  is  believed  that  they  greatly  enhance  its 
value. 

The  purpose  of  the  work  is  twofold.  First,  to  meet 
the  needs  of  students  entering  upon  the  study  of 
Church  History,  and  who  are  in  danger  of  getting  lost 
and  discouraged  in  the  labyrinth,  who  consequently 
need  a  thread  to  guide  them  until  they  shall  be  able  to 
get  their  bearings.  Second,  the  large  and  growing 
class  of  intelligent  people,  Christian  and  non-Christian, 
who  would  like  to  know  something  of  the  historical 
development  of  the  marvelous   institution   called  the 

3 


4  Preface 

church,  but  who  have  not  time  for  the  larger  works 
which  sometimes  run  through  several  volumes.  It  is 
hoped  that  this  volume  is  sufficiently  short,  simple, 
and  free  from  technicalities  to  meet  this  want. 

For  the  benefit  of  students,  carefully  selected 
bibliographies  have  been  prefixed  to  the  different 
periods  and  sections.  An  especial  effort  has  been 
made  to  make  these  bibliographies  representative. 
The  author  has  been  extremely  anxious  to  betray  no 
bias.  But  if,  here  and  there,  he  can  be  convicted  of 
prejudice  or  unfairness  he  trusts  that  by  means  of  the 
sources  cited  the  truth  may  be  found.  Where  books 
have  been  translated  from  foreign  languages  the  Eng- 
lish titles  have  always  been  given.  It  has  also  seemed 
best  to  add  a  few  of  the  standard  French  and  German 
works,  because  knowledge  of  these  languages  is 
increasing  so  rapidly  that  few  classes  of  any  size  are 
likely  to  be  found  in  which  there  are  not  some  mem- 
bers who  use  these  languages  with  considerable  facil- 
ity. 

Continual  references  are  made  to  translations  from 
original  sources,  and  in  every  possible  way  students 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  the  fullest  use  of  these 
translations,  because  the  time  is  not  far  off  when  no 
one  who  has  not  handled  the  original  sources  with 
more  or  less  of  independence  can  be  said  to  have 
studied  history.  Books  like  this  must  be  more  and 
more  looked  upon  simply  as  introductions,  and  their 
statements  must  all  be  tested  by  the  facts. 

This  bibliography  lays  no  claims  to  completeness, 
and  many  readers  will  no  doubt  be  disappointed  to 
find  important  omissions.  But  the  student  who  fol- 
lows out  its  suggestions  wil)  soon  find  himself  in  the 
way  of  complete  information. 


Preface  5 

The  second  class  of  readers  will  pay  no  attention  to 
the  bibliographies,  but  begin  with  the  definition  of 
Church  History  on  page  24.  Yet  it  would  not  be  sur- 
prising if  they  also  should  want  to  read  much  further 
than  this  book  takes  them.  From  numerous  letters 
received  from  women's  literary  clubs,  the  author  is 
led  to  believe  that  the  book  with  its  references  will 
be  found  useful  to  these  societies. 

Another  feature  of  the  work  is  its  view  of  the  rela- 
tions of  church  and  secular  history.  So  important  has 
this  appeared  that  all  the  way  through  the  great  move- 
ments of  secular  history  have  been  kept  steadily  in 
view,  and  it  is  shown  that  neither  side  can  be  under- 
stood without  considerable  knowledge  6f  the  other. 
The  minister  who  will  command  the  respect  of  his 
community  in  the  future  will  be  a  man  of  large  and 
intelligent  views  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  He 
will,  of  course,  be  a  specialist,  but  he  will  at  the  same 
time  be  a  generalist. 

This  book  has  been  written  with  the  idea  that  every 
good  thing  in  the  world  belongs  to  God  and  His  peo- 
ple, and  that  it  should  be  utilized;  that  every  good 
man,  whatever  his  position  in  life,  has  something 
useful  for  every  other  good  man;  that  the  distinction 
between  sacred  and  secular,  higher  classes  and  lower 
classes,  is  becoming  more  and  more  obscure;  and 
that  what  is  now  needed  is  the  realization  of  the  truly 
Christian  idea  of  the  solidarity  of  all  the  redeemed  in 
the  society  called  the  Kingdom  of  God. 

All  through  the  preparation  of  the  book,  the  maxim: 
Dolus  latet  in  generalidiis  has  never  been  absent  from 
the  author's  mind.  And  notwithstanding  the  valuable 
helps  all  the  way  he  cannot  hope  that  he  has  avoided 
mistakes — possibly    some     serious     ones        He     will 


6  Preface 

esteem  it  a  great  favor  if  scholars  who  honor  the  little 
volume  by  reading  it  will  send  him  their  criticisms  and 
corrections. 

If,  in  some  small  way,  the  book   shall  contribute  to 
the  new  awakening  that   is  evidently  taking  place   in 
the  great  subject  of  Church  History  the  author  will  be 
more  than  gratified. 
April  8,  1902. 


CONTENTS       • 

INTRODUCTION 
Literature— Definition  of  Church  History — The  Relations  of 
Church  History  to  Secular  History — The  Value  of  the 
Study  of  Church  History — The  Purpose  of  an  Outline  of 
Church  History — The  True  Spirit  of  Historical  Study — 
The  Preparation  for  the  Coming  of  the  Saviour — The 
State  of  the  World  at  the  Coming  of  the  Saviour — The 
Divisions  of  Church  History 15 

BOOK   FIRST 

Ancient  Church  History,    B.C.  4-A.D.  590  —  Literature      .     37 

CHAPTER  I— The  Apostolic  Age,  B.C.  4-A.D.  100  — A. 

The  State  of  Politics  and  Society — B.  The  Religious  Life 

— The  Life  and  Teachings  of  Jesus — The  Founding  of 

the  Church — Church  Organization 39 

CHAPTER  II — From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine, 
100-313. — A.  Politics  and  Society  —  B.  The  Develop- 
ment of  Christianity — Church  .Extension — Literature — 
The  Growth  of  Centralization — Montanism — Church  Dis- 
cipline —  Doctrinal  Developments  and  Controversies — 
Ebionism  —  Gnosticism  —  Manichaeism  —  Literary  and 
Philosophical  Attacks  on  Christianity — Neoplatonism — 
Christian  Thought  and  Literature — The  New  Testament 
Canon — The  Church  Fathers  —  Christian  Life — Monasti- 
cism — Christian  Art 62 

CHAPTER  III — From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I.,  313-590 
— Church  and  State — Literature — Christianity — Literature 
— The  Pagan  Reaction  —  Church  Extension — Christian 
Thought  and  Literature  and  the  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene 
Fathers — Literature  —  Early  Church  History  —  Eastern 
Schools — The  Theology  of  the  West — Doctrinal  Develop- 
ments and  Controversies — The  Arian  Controversy — The 
7 


8  Contents 

Christological  Controversies  —  The  Origenistic  Contro- 
versy— The  Pelagian  Controversy — The  Growth  of  Cen- 
tralization— Christian  Life  and  Worship — Monasticism — 
Literature  —  Clerical  Celibacy  —  Worship  —  Festivals — 
Christian  Art io8 

BOOK  SECOND 

CHAPTER  I — Medleval  Church  History,  590-1517  — 
Literature — General  Characteristics  of  the  Middle  Ages  .   159 

CHAPTER  n — From  Gregory  the  Great  to  the  Death 
OF  Charles  the  Great,  590-814 — Church  and  State — In 
the  West— In  the  East — Literature — The  Growth  of  Cen- 
tralization— The  Decline  of  the  Metropolitans — The  Sar- 
acenic Conquests  —  Gregory  the  Great  —  Hadrian  I., 
772-795 — The  State  of  Theology  in  the  West — Theology 
in  the  East — Christian  Thought  and  Literature — Schools 
— Vernacular  Translations  of  the  Bible — Lives  of  Saints 
— Christian  Life — English  Church  History — Literature — 
The  British  Church — The  Conversion  of  the  English — 
Theodore   of   Tarsus 165 

CHAPTER  III — From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory 
the  Seventh,  814-1073 — Church  and  State — The  Parti- 
tion at  Verdun,  843 — The  Establishment  of  the  Theory 
of  the  Mediaeval  Empire — The  Coronation  of  Otto  the 
Great,  962 — The  Origin  and  Development  of  Feudalism — 
Literature — Chivalry — The  Truce  of  God— Church  Exten- 
sion— In  the  Scandinavian  Kingdoms — The  Conversion 
of  the  Slavs — The  Growth  of  Centralization — The  False 
Decretals — Nicholas  I.,  858-867 — Doctrinal  Controversies 
— In  the  West — In  the  East — Christian  Life 191 

CHAPTER  IV— From  Gregory  VIL  to  the  Babylonian 
Captivity,  1073-1305 — Church  and  State — The  Conflict  of 
Gregory  VII.  and  Henry  IV. — Literature — Estimate  of 
Gregory  VIL — The  Concordat  at  Worms,  1122 — Innocent 
III.  and  the  Culmination  of  Papal  Supremacy — The 
Contest  of  Philip  the  Fair  and  Boniface  VIII. — Church 
Extension — Causes  of  the  Crusades — Political — Social — 
Religious — The  Results  of  the  Crusades — Philosophical 
and  Doctrinal    Developments  and    Controversies — Scho- 


Contents  9 

lasticism  —  Literature  —  The  Nature  of  Scholasticism — 
The  Historical  Divisions  of  Scholasticism  —  Weakness 
and  Strength  of  Scholasticism— The  Sects  of  the  Twelfth 
Century — Christian  Life — New  Developments  in  Monasti- 
cism — Dominicans  and  Franciscans — New  Interests  in 
Literature — The  Sacramental  System — The  Church  in 
England       206 

CHAPTER  V  —  From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to 
THE  Posting  of  Luther's  Theses,  1305-1517 — The 
Relations  of  Church  and  State — The  Babylonian  Captiv- 
ity— Literature — The  Great  Schism,  1378 — Literature — 
The  Reforming  Councils— Church  Extension— Philosoph- 
ical and  Doctrinal  Controversies — The  Rise  of  Humanism 
—  Literature— The  Origin  and  Development  of  Mysticism 
— Literature  —  The  Church  in  England,  1297-1485  — 
Christian    Life — The  Dawn  of  the  Reformation     .     .     .255 

BOOK  THIRD 

CHAPTER  I— Modern  Church  History — From  the  Post- 
ing OF  Luther's  Ninety-five  Theses  to  the  Present 
Time,  15 17-1902— Literature 277 

CHAPTER  II — The  Period  of  the  Reformation,  1517-1648 
— Literature — The  Social  and  Political  Condition  of 
Europe  at  the  Opening  of  the  Sixteenth  Century — The  Rev- 
olution— In  Italy  —  Germany  —  Literature  —  Luther  and 
the  Humanists — Luther  and  Charles  V. — Excesses  among 
the  Reformers — Events  Indicating  the  Progress  of  Reform 
— The  Death  of  Luther — The  Peace  of  Augsburg,  1555 — 
The  Reformation  in  Switzerland — Literature — The  Refor- 
mation in  French  Switzerland — The  Reformation  at 
Geneva  —  Literature — The  Reformation  in  England — 
Literature — The  Tudors — Literature — Henry  VIII.,  1509- 
1547 — Edward  VI.,  1547-1553 — Mary,  1553-1558  —  Eliza- 
beth, 15  58-1603 — The  Reformation  in  Other  Countries 
— Literature — The  Scotch  Reformation — Literature — The 
Dutch  Reformation  — Literature  —  Separate  Reforma- 
tory Movements  —  The  Anabaptists  —  Literature — The 
Schwenckfeldians — The  Socinians — Literature — The  The- 
ology of  the  Reformation — The  Counter-Reformation — 


10  Contents 

The  Order  of  the  Jesuits — Literature — The  Council  of 
Trent — Literature — The  Inquisition  —  Literature  —  The 
Thirty    Years'  War,   1618-1648— Literature 283 

CHAPTER  III — From  the  'Peace  of  Westphalia  to  the 
French  Revolution,  1648-1789  —  Church  Development 
on  the  Continent — The  Developments  in  Romanism — 
Jansenism — Literature — The  Overthrow  of  the  Jesuits — 
Quietism — Developments  in  Protestantism— Literature — 
Pietism  and  Orthodoxy  —  Literature  —  Results  of  the 
Pietistic  Movement— The  Period  of  Investigation  and 
Reconstruction  —  In  Philosophy  —  In  Literature  —  In 
Theology — Swedenborgianism — The  French  Revolution 
— Church  Development  in  England — Science  and  Philos- 
ophy— The  Growth  of  Religious  Toleration — The  Devel- 
opment of  Christianity  in  America — Literature — Spain — 
France — England — The  Great  Awakening — The  Germans 
in  America — The  Establishment  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church 371 

CHAPTER  IV— From  the  French  Revolution  to  the 
Present  Time,  i  789-1902— Literature — Church  Develop- 
ment on  the  Continent — The  Papacy  —  Lutheranism — 
Philosophy — Theology — The  Mediating  School — Albrecht 
Ritschl — Literature — The  Union  of  the  Reformed  and 
Lutheran  Churches— Other  Forms  of  Faith— Calvinism— 
The  Waldensians — Romanticism — Church  Development 
in  England— The  Broad  Church— The  Low  Church— The 
Oxford  Movement — Literature — The  Revival  of  Missions 
— Literature —  Church  Development  in  America  —  The 
Reign  of  Skepticism— The  Great  Revivals,  1 796-1 803— 
The  Denominations — Lines  of  Denominational  Activity 
— Disruptions — Presbyterians —  Lutherans  —  The  Metho- 
dists—The Congregationalists— The  Baptists— The  Epis- 
copalians— The  Universalists 419 

CONCLUSION 451 

INDEX 453 


INTRODUCTION 


A    Short   History    of  the    Christian 
Church 


INTRODUCTION 


LITERATURE 


When  a  real  student  enters  upon  a  course  of  study 
his  first  question  is:  Where  shall  I  find  the  most  relia- 
ble sources  of  information?  By  information  he  means, 
first  of  all,  the  fundamental  and  essential  facts,  exactly 
as  they  were  in  the  period  under  investigation;  and 
second,  the  various  interpretations  of  these  facts  as 
they  have  passed  under  the  critical  examination  of  the 
ages  that  may  have  gone  by. 

He  thus  finds  in  the  nature  of  the  case  a  basis  for  the 
classification  of  the  sources  into  origmal  and  secondary. 

It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  a  hard  and 
fast  line  cannot  always  be  drawn  between  original  and 
secondary  sources.  Moreover,  what  in  one  point  of 
view  is  a  secondary  source  may  in  another  be  an  orig- 
inal source. 

No  student  can  proceed  very  far  without  a  diligent 
use  of  both  the  original  and  the  secondary  sources. 
He  will  not  be  strong  enough  to  handle  the  original 
sources  entirely  alone,  and  if  he  limits  himself  to  the 
secondary  sources  he  will  surely  land  himself  at  least 
two  steps  from  the  truth. 

13 


14      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  student  wlio  does  exhaustive  work,  and  becomes 
an  authority,  and  really  makes  a  contribution  to  knowl- 
edge, cannot  take  a  very  wide  field  for  his  specialty. 
He  can,  however,  range  very  widely  over  the  second- 
ary sources  of  many  fields  and  thus  secure  a  symmet- 
rical development  and  save  himself  from  the  narrowness 
of  too  exclusive  specialization — a  danger  very  imminent 
in  our  times. 

It  is  of  the  first  importance  that  in  the  interpretation 
of  a  source,  its  entire  environment  be  grasped  and 
kept  ever  in  view.  Who  were  the  men?  what  were 
their  temperaments,  their  education,  their  position  in 
society  and  their  party  affiliations?  What  were  the 
great  issues  of  their  age,  political,  social,  religious, 
philosophical?  How  were  these  issues  related?  Did 
any  one  issue  overtop  the  rest? 

These  and  many  other  such  questions  should  be 
scrupulously  answered.  The  urgency  of  such  a  pro- 
cedure is  seen,  for  example,  the  moment  we  take  up 
any  of  the  Church  Fathers.  In  our  own  century  it  is 
seen  in  the  relation  of  Strauss  to  Hegel;  in  the  for- 
mer's life  of  Jesus  and  the  numerous  lives  of  Christ  that 
followed.   We  find  examples  all  through  church  history. 

Among  the  origiJial  sources  of  general  church  his- 
tory may  be  mentioned:  The  Old  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures;  the  writings  of  the  Church  Fathers — 
especially  Origen,  Athanasius,  Eusebius  of  Caesarea, 
and  Augustine;  Archaeology  as  found  in  the  remains 
of  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting;  the  decisions 
of  Synods  and  Councils, — as  the  Nicene  Creed, — and 
their  recorded  proceedings  such  as  debates  and  other 
statements;  papal  bulls;  the  writings  of  reformers 
such  as  Wiclifs  Trialogiis,  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
and  Calvin's  Institutes  of  the  Christiaji  Religion, 


Introduction  16 

All  these  are  well-springs  of  the  great  and  widening 
streams  of  thought  that  have  run  through  the  ages. 
They  are  embodiments  of  the  contemporary  spirit.  The 
student  who  can  understand  them  and  at  the  same  time 
understand  the  requirements  of  his  own  age,  and  who 
can  separate  the  false  from  the  old  and  the  false  from 
the  new;  and  who  can  combine  the  true  of  the  old  and 
the  true  of  the  new  into  a  symmetrical  whole,  will 
come  very  near  to  being  the  ideal  historian. 

The  secondary  sources  of  general  church  history 
are  very  extensive  both  in  quantity  and  variety.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  name  a  single  branch  of  historical 
study  that  is  not  in  some  way  of  interest  to  the  student 
of  church  history. 

It  may  be  well  to  mention  here  some  of  these 
branches,  and  to  call  attention  to  a  few  of  the  leading 
books  which  will  always  be  in  demand — reserving  more 
special  works  to  be  cited  in  connection  with  the  differ- 
ent chapters  and  sections. 

A.   General  Histories 

The  monumental  work  of  Lavisse  and  Rambaud — 
entitled  Histoire  Generale — is  no  doubt  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  general  histories.  It  consists  of  nine  vol- 
umes and  extends  from  395  to  181 5. 

The  Outli?ies  of  Ge?ieral  History  by  Prof.  G.  P.  Fisher, 
is  really  what  it  professes  to  be — an  outline  of  Uni- 
versal History.  It  begins  at  the  beginning  and  reviews 
the  progress  of  the  world  down  to  date.  Its  most 
excellent  maps  add  much  to  its  value. 

A  still  more  condensed  work   is  Ploetz's  Epitome  of 
Universal  History — translated  and  enlarged   by  W.  H. 
Tillinghast. 


16      A  Short  History  of  the  Christ  inn  Church 

Freeman's  General  Sketeli  is  the  best  very  brief  sum- 
mary ill  existence. 

A  more  extensive  sketch  is  G.  B.  Adams's  liitropean 
History  with  select  bibliographies,  illustrations  and 
maps.  This  is  the  latest  valuable  contribution  to  the 
subject. 

Meyer's  General  History,  in  two  volumes,  is  a  very 
attractive  presentation.  It  has  also  been  abridged  into 
a  single  volume  for  schools. 

E.  B.  Andrews's  Listitutes  of  General  History  is  a  wel- 
come guide  through  the  labyrinth — and  with  its  excel- 
lent bibliography  forms  a  good  introduction. 

For  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  Political  History  of 
Europe  no  book  is  so  valuable  as  the  little  volume 
of  Lavisse,  translated  by  Professor  Gross.  The  author's 
outlook  is  not  altogether  hopeful. 

B.   General  Church  Histories 

Giessler's  Ecclesiastical  History,  in  five  volumes,  is  a 
source  book.  It  contains  a  thread  of  narrative  with 
abundant  citations  from  all  the  important  original 
sources. 

Kurtz's  Church  History,  in  three  volumes,  is  closely 
packed  and  well  arranged  and  indexed.  Constant 
reference  to  it  will  always  be  rewarded. 

The  Universal  Church  History  of  Alzog,  in  three  vol- 
umes, is  a  work  of  conspicuous  merit.  It  is  perhaps 
the  best  Roman  Catholic  church  history.  The 
author's  point  of  view,  less  evident  in  the  original, 
becomes  more  apparent  in  the  translation. 

Professor  Fisher's  History  of  the  Christiaii  ClmrcJi  like 
his  Universal  History,  is  a  repertory  of  facts  clearly 
and  concisely  stated. 

The  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  in  two  volumes, 


Introduction  17 

by  Bishop  Hurst,  considers  the  subject  in  a  large  and 
liberal  spirit. 

The  great  work  of  the  lamented  Dr.  Schaff,  Tke  His- 
tory of  the  Christia?i  Church,  both  in  its  treatment  and  its 
bibliography,  is  the  most  elaborate  church  history  that 
has  appeared  in  America.  It  covers  the  history  of  the 
church  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  Swiss 
Reformation — omitting  the  period  just  previous  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  Reformation. 

To  Neander  belongs  the  distinguished  honor  of  bring- 
ing church  history  under  the  control  of  ideas,  confining 
it  within  a  reasonable  compass,  and  putting  into  it  a 
new  spirit  of  earnestness.  Although  in  many  respects 
out  of  date  it  still  has  much  value. 

Moeller's  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  in  three  vol- 
umes, brings  the  subject  down  through  the  Reforma- 
tion. Despite  the  fact  that  in  style  it  is  often  involved 
and  even  obscure  it  is  probably  the  best  church  history 
that  has  yet  appeared. 

The  Outli?ies  of  Church  History  by  Prof.  Rudolf  Sohm  is 
clear  and  full  of  suggestion.  The  student  who  has  the 
details  of  general  church  history  well  in  mind  will  find 
it  invaluable.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation 
it  is  concerned  almost  exclusively  with  German  church 
history. 

For  the  general  church  history  of  Germany  to  the 
twelfth  century  the  student  will  always  go  to  Hauck's 
monumental  Kirchengeschichte  Deutschlands. 

Mtiller's  Kirchengeschichte  to  the  Reformation  is  a 
book  that  commands  the  highest  respect.  Its  comple- 
tion to  the  present  time  is  awaited  with  deep  interest. 

Harnack:   What  is  Christianity? 

This  latest  work  of  the  great  historian  has  attracted 
universal   attention.      The   student   of  general   church 


18      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

history  will    find    it   exceedingly   instructive   and   sug- 
gestive. 

Caird:  TJie  Evoliitio7i  of  Religion  is  a  most  interesting 
general  and  philosophical  view  of  the  development  of 
religion. 

There  are  many  other  books  of  real  merit  among 
which  should  be  mentioned  Zenos's  Co^npcndiiim  of 
Church  History ;  Jennings's  Manual  of  Clmrch  History ; 
Crooks 's  Story  of  the  CJiristiaii  Church. 

But  the  latest  contribution  is  Newman's  Ma?iual  of 
Church  History.  The  first  volume  bringing  the  subject 
down  to  the  Reformation  shows  great  breadth  and 
accuracy  of  scholarship,  largeness  of  sympathy.  These 
qualities  place  it  among  the  leading  church  histories  of 
our  times. 

In  this  connection  all  religious  Cyclopedias  will  be 
of  the  greatest  service  to  the  student.  Among  these 
we  should  especially  mention:  Tlie  Co?icise  Dictionary  of 
Religious  Knowledge,  edited  by  Samuel  MacAuley  Jackson. 

During  the  last  century  Patrology  became  a  science 
and  constant  reference  to  standard  works  will  be  of 
great  importance  to  the  student.     Among  these  are: 

Moeller — Patrologie,  oder  Cliristliche  Literdrgeschichte . 

Schmidt — Manual  of  Patrology. 

Stearns — Manual  of  Patrology. 

C.    General  Histories  of  Doctrine 

The  book  that  will  command  the  attention  of  all  per- 
sons who  are  interested  in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
for  many  years  to  come  is  Dr.  Harnack's  History  of 
Dogma.  This  great  work  has  just  been  translated  into 
English  and  published  in  seven  volumes.  So  far  as 
knowledge   and   intellectual   reach   and  grasp  are  con- 


Introduction  19 

cerned  no  other  man  was  so  well  qualified  for  dealing 
with  the  subject  of  dogma. 

Another  book  of  like  sympathies  and  purposes  is 
Kaftan's  The  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religiofi.  The  first 
volume  of  this  work  will  require  the  thoughtful  and 
protracted  attention  of  all  who  seek  to  know  the  origin 
of  dogma  and  the  development  of  theology. 

Loofs's  Leitfaden  zum  Studium  der  Dogmengeschichte  is 
an  independent  study  of  marked  ability  and  compares 
favorably  with  Harnack  and  Kaftan. 

As  something  of  an  antidote  to  many  of  the  posi- 
tions taken  in  the  three  notable  works  just  mentioned 
Seeberg's  Lehrbuch  der  DogmcngescJiichte  will  be  found 
interesting — two  volumes. 

Both  Seeberg  and  Loofs  are  especially  valuable  on 
account  of  the  numerous  passages  from  the  original 
sources  which  they  have  embodied  in  their  narratives. 

Sheldon's  History  of  Christian  Doctrine  is  very  largely 
drawn  from  original  sources,  and  will  be  found 
extremely  valuable.  It  covers  the  entire  period  from 
90  to  1885 — two  volumes. 

The  Outlines  of  Christian  Dogma  by  Darwell  Stone  is  a 
very  clear  and  interesting  presentation  from  the  con- 
servative Anglican  point  of  view. 

Schaff's  Creeds  of  Christendom^  in  three  volumes,  is  the 
source  book  for  the  history  of  doctrines.  The  first 
volume  is  a  general  introduction  to  the  whole  sub- 
ject. The  second  volume  contains  the  Greek  and 
Latin  creeds  with  translations;  the  third  volume  con- 
tains the  Evangelical  Confessions  with  English  trans- 
lations. 

The  History  of  Christia?i  Doctri?ie  by  Prof.  G.  P.  Fisher, 
contains  the  ripe  fruit  of  mature  scholarship.  It  is  a 
resume  of  all    historical    theology  expressed   in    the 


20      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

author's  lucid,  concise  style,  and  will  be  needed  for 
constant  reference. 

In  Hagenbach's  History  of  Doctrine  we  have  a  scholarly 
treatment  in  two  volumes  with  many  quotations  from 
original  sources. 

The  History  of  CJiristian  Doctrine,  in  two  volumes  by 
Prof.  W.  G.  T.  Shedd,  is  a  very  clear  and  interesting 
statement  of  the  development  of  doctrines.  Dr.  Shedd 
was  a  rigid  Calvinist. 

Samuel  G.  Green's  Tlie  Christia?i  Creed  a?id  the  Creeds 
of  CJiristcndom,  is  a  fresh  and  scholarly  review  of  the 
progress  of  creeds — pointing  out  their  elements  of 
strength  and  weakness.  It  is  liberal  in  the  best  sense 
of  the  word. 

Highly  to  be  commended  is  Moule's  Outlines  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine.  A  perusal  of  this  little  volume  will  con- 
vince any  one  that  doctrines  are  not  necessarily  dry, 
and  that  those  who  write  on  doctrines  may  do  it  in  a 
deeply  spiritual  mood. 

A  conservative  view  of  The  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation 
is  given  by  Ottley.  The  book  is  well  written  and  cov- 
ers the  entire  subject  from  the  beginning  to  the  present 
time. 

From  the  philosophical  and  critical  point  of  view 
few  works  can  compare  in  clearness  of  conception  and 
conciseness  and  adequacy  of  statement  with  Book  I. 
of  Fairbaim's  Place  of  Christ  in  Modern  Theology. 

D.   General  Histories  of  Philosophy 

The  beginner  will  find  Weber's  History  of  Philosophy  in 
every  way  adapted  to  his  wants.  The  story  is  told 
simply  and  accurately.  The  bibliography  is  well  nigh 
complete.  When  the  student  is  ready  for  more 
advanced  work   he  will  go  to  Windelband's  History  of 


Introduction  21 

Philosophy,  whose  aim  is  to  show  the  evolution  of  ideas, 
paying  little  attention  to  what  is  purely  individual 
in  the  master  minds  who  kept  the  evolution  evolving. 
Its  deliberate  purpose  is  to  deal  with  "The  History  of 
Problems  and  Conceptions." 

Of  course  the  immortal  works  of  TJeberweg  and  Erd- 
mann  will  be  in  ever-recurring  demand  for  reference. 

It  has  been  sufficiently  emphasized  that  the  student 
of  church  history  can  make  no  progress  without  a  good 
general  knowledge  of  the  history  of  thought.  But  he 
must  do  more.  He  must  know  in  its  broad  outline  at 
least  the  present  status  of  philosophy — its  theories  and 
the  arguments  for  and  against  these  theories.  Fortu- 
nately we  are  not  left  without  excellent  helps  at  this 
juncture.  Paulsen's  Introduction  to  Philosopliy  is  strong 
on  the  sides  of  metaphysics  and  epistemology,  and  is 
extremely  valuable;  but  for  an  all-round,  historical, 
critical,  up-to-date  statement  Kiilpe's  Introduction  to 
Philosophy,  comes  little  short  of  meeting  the  require- 
ments. 

Watson's  Comte,  Mill  and  Spe?icer  is  intended  by  its 
author  to  be  an  outline  of  philosophy.  It  is  very  keen 
and  will  bear  repeated  reading.  Christianity  and  Ideal- 
ism, by  the  same  author,  should  be  read  in  further 
explanation  of  his  views — Dr.  Watson  is  properly 
classified  as  a  Semi-Hegelian. 

E.   General  Histories  of  Ethics 

Yodl's  Geschichte  der  EtJiik  in  der  fieueren  PJiilosophie^ 
as  the  title  indicates,  is  concerned  chiefly  with  modern 
Ethics.  But  it  has  an  excellent  introduction  treating 
of  ancient  and  early  Christian  Ethics  and  so  deserves 
to  have  a  place  among  the  works  covering  the  entire 
field. 


22      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

In  Ziegler's  GcscJiicJite  der  EtJiik  we  have  a  very  full 
treatment  of  the  Ethics  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and 
of  Christian  Ethics. 

Goss  in  Die  GcschicJite  der  C]iristliche7i  Ethik,  in  two 
volumes,  covers  the  entire  field. 

Martin eau's  Types  of  EtJiical  TJieory,  in  two  volumes,  is 
a  work  of  marked  clearness  and  ability.  It  deals  thor- 
oughly with  several  of  the  influential  types  of  Ethical 
thought  from  Plato  to  Comte,  Mill  and  Spencer.  He 
was  one  of  the  strongest  champions  of  Intuitionism. 

A  meritorious  short  sketch  of  wide  influence  is  Sidg- 
wick's  History  of  Ethics,  written  from  the  Utilitarian 
point  of  view. 

The  Bampton  Lectures,  1895,  by  T.  B.  Strong,  on 
Christian  Ethics,  is  historical  in  its  method,  and  will  be 
consulted  with  much  profit  in  many  of  the  fundamen- 
tal problems. 

F.   General   Histories  of  Art 

There  are  two  books  which  will  be  of  the  greatest 
value  to  the  student  who  seeks  the  fundamental  knowl- 
edge necessary  to  appreciate  works  of  art.  The  first 
of  these  is  Liibke's  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Art,  in  two 
volumes.     The  second  is  D'Anver's  Elemeiitary  History. 

Books  more  special  in  their  treatment  are  Lindsay's 
Christian  Art  and  Martin's  Ecclesiastical  Architecture. 

G.   Philosophies  of  History 

Flint's  Philosophy  of  History,  when  completed,  will  be 
the  most  exhaustive  contribution  yet  made  to  the  sub- 
ject. His  method  is  to  pass  under  critical  review  all 
the  great  attempts  that  have  appeared  and  at  the  con- 
clusion to  give  his  own  view.  Thus  far  we  have  the 
Philosophy  of  History  in  France  and  Germany,  which 


Introduction  23 

appeared  in  1874.  More  recently  the  author  began  the 
work  of  revision  which  has  given  us  only  the  Philoso- 
phy of  History  in  France  in  one  large  volume.  The 
work  as  it  stands  is  indispensable — and  its  completion 
will  be  awaited  with  much  eagerness.  Professor  Flint's 
mind  is  critical  in  the  highest  degree — and  it  is  hoped 
that  it  will  prove  equally  constructive. 

All  parts  of  Lotze's  Microcosnms  are  of  interest  to  the 
student  of  historical  philosophy  but  Book  VII.  on  His- 
tory will  have  perpetual  value. 

The  eighteenth  volume  of  Laurent's  Etudes  siir  VHis- 
toire  de  rHiimanitc  contains  the  reflections  of  a  great 
scholar  and  thinker  on  the  course  of  human  events. 

The  Principles  of  History  is  a  translation  of  Droysen's 
profound  little  book — Historik.  The  translation  was 
done  with  much  care  and  thought  by  President  E.  B. 
Andrews. 

Shedd's  little  volume  on  the  Pliilosophy  of  History  gives 
a  strong  Calvinistic  view  of  the  subject.  Goldwin 
^Tui'C^'^  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  History  should  be  read  as 
an  antidote. 

A  small  volume  on  the  Philosophy  of  History,  by  Pro- 
fessor Lloyd,  is  the  latest  contribution  to  the  subject. 
It  is  a  very  able  and  independent  presentation  of  the 
Hegelian  philosophy  of  history. 

Although  not  pretending  to  be  a  Philosophy  of  His- 
tory, Orr's  Christiaii  Viezu  of  God  a?id  the  World,  has 
many  of  the  marks  of  a  philosophy  of  history  and 
deserves  careful  attention. 

Janet's  Histoire  de  la  Science  Politique  treats  political 
development  in  its  relation  to  moral  development. 
The  treatment  is  philosophical  throughout. 

The  last  two  works  of  the  late  Professor  Bruce,  on 
Provide?itial  Order,  and  Moral  Order,  are  extremely  val- 


24      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

uable  contributions  to  certain  phases  of  the  Philosophy 
of  History. 

The  Ifitellcctual  Developmerit  of  Europe^  by  Draper,  is 
still  a  work  of  interest. 

The  student  of  church  history  must,  in  the  nature  of 
the  case,  keep  well  abreast  of  current  historical  and 
theological  thought.  Among  the  periodicals  that  are 
most  helpful  are: 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Kirchengcschichte ;  The  English  Histor- 
ical Review;  The  American  Historical  Review;  The 
American  Journal  of  Theology;  American  Journal  of  Soci- 
ology ;  and  The  Biblical  World. 

THE  DEFINITION  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY 

Church  history  is  the  story  of  the  application  to 
human  nature  of  the  principles  taught  by  Jesus  Christ, 
and  of  the  perversions  of  these  principles.  It  is  a 
story  of  lights  and  shadows  with  the  lights  largely 
predominating. 

THE  RELATION  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY   TO  SECULAR 
HISTORY 

Church  history  is  an  organic  part  of  general  history. 
History  is  a  unit  and  no  branch  of  history  can  be 
understood  without  some  knowledge  of  all  history. 

Political  history  is  simply  history  with  the  main 
emphasis  put  upon  the  political  side;  economic  history 
is  but  history  with  the  principal  stress  laid  upon  the 
economic  side;  church  history  is  nothing  more  than 
history  with  the  ecclesiastical  elements  in  special 
prominence.     God  is  in  all  history. 

The  serious  student  of  history  can  leave  no  impor- 
tant phase  of  the  subject  entirely  out  of  account.     He 


Introduction  26 

should  understand  at  the  beginning  of  his  studies  that 
he  is  about  to  deal  with  the  most  intricate  and  difficult 
of  all  subjects;  a  subject  whose  adequate  treatment 
calls  for  the  highest  generalizing  as  well  as  for  the 
clearest  analytical  power.  Since  this  is  a  combination 
exceedingly  rare  the  historical  student  should  always 
be  modest. 

THE  VALUE  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY 

A.    To  THE  Student  of  General  History 

The  important,  oftentimes  central,  position  the 
church  has  occupied  during  the  Christian  era,  espe- 
cially in  the  earlier  centuries,  and  the  Middle  Ages 
makes  a  knowledge  of  church  history  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  a  knowledge  of  secular  history. 

B.    To  THE  Student  for  the   Ministry 

The  great  lines  of  doctrine,  of  polity,  of  worship,  of 
missionary  activity,  with  their  combinations  of  truth 
and  error,  with  their  influence  for  weal  and  for  woe, 
have  been  so  many  gradual  growths  the  products  in 
large  measure  of  the  most  various  environments.  The 
student,  then,  who  would  know  the  present  must  know 
all  these  meanders  and  their  causes.  If  his  studies 
have  been  properly  carried  on  he  will,  at  the  end,  have 
gathered  the  nuggets  of  gold  and  cast  off  the  dross. 
He  will  thus  find  himself  ready  intelligently  to  advance 
into  new  fields  of  investigation  and  discovery. 

C.  To  THE  Student  of  General  Culture 

There  are  few  subjects  that  are  attractive  from  so 
many  points  of  view.  In  the  history  of  the  Christian 
church   are   found   the   noblest  examples  of  piety  and 


26      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

devotion;  of  intellectual  acuteness  and  power;  of 
philosophical  breadth;  and  of  literary  grace  and 
charm.  There  are  few  traits  of  human  nature  that  are 
not  here  again  and  again  abundantly  illustrated. 
Instruction  and  inspiration  are  found  at  every  step  of 
the  way. 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  AN  OUTLINE  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY 

A.  To  select  the  most  comprehensive  facts  and  ideas 
and  state  them  in  concise  and   luminous  language. 

B.  To  put  them  in  their  natural  relation  of  cause 
and  effect. 

C.  To  suggest  problems  for  further  study  and  to 
make  a  more  or  less  critical  estimate  of  the  sources  of 
information. 

D.  To  furnish  such  a  comprehensive  and  orderly 
survey  of  the  whole  field  that  future  work  on  special 
subjects  may  not  seem  disconnected  and  fragmentary. 

It  has  been  objected  to  all  such  brief  statements 
that  they  undertake  too  much.  Because  infinite  care 
and  trouble  are  necessary  to  establish  the  truth  of  a 
single  fact. 

But  it  has  been  answered  that  if  the  details  are  often 
doubtful  the  leading  facts  are  not,  as  e.  g.,  The  Battle 
of  Marathon;  The  Reformation;  The  French  Revolu- 
tion. 

Moreover  in  all  the  great  disciplines,  as  Philosophy, 
Botany,  Chemistry,  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  the 
rule  to  begin  the  work  with  general  courses. 

THE  TRUE  SPIRIT  OF  HISTORICAL  STUDY 

A.  The  purely  scientific  aim  of  historical  study  is 
the  ascertainment  of  historical  truth. 


Introduction  27 

At  first  thought  this  ideal  appears  very  easy  to 
reach,  but  upon  closer  examination  it  turns  out  to  be 
almost  unattainable. 

Every  school  of  philosophy,  every  school  of  theol- 
ogy, every  religious  denomination,  has  its  point  of 
view,  and  consciously  or  unconsciously,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  historical  interpretation  is  influenced 
by  this  point  of  view. 

B.  The  true  historian  is  widely  learned,  highly 
critical,  cautious,  calm,  profoundly  judicial,  independ- 
ent, a  lover  of  humanity. 

In  his  special  department  he  will  draw  constantly 
from  the  original  sources  of  information.  He  will 
never  rest  until  he  has  given  careful  and  respectful 
study  to  every  fact  on  every  side  of  every  controversy. 
In  the  light  of  it  all  he  will  make  up  his  mind. 

THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  COMING  OF  THE 
SAVIOUR 

Literature 

McCurdy:  History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments,  3  vols. 

Kent:   Ozctlme  Study  of  Hebrew  History. 

Goodspeed:  Israel's  Messianic  Hope. 

Price:   The  Mo?iume?its  a?id  the  Old  Testament. 

Schiirer:  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

Mathews:  History  of  New  Testament  Times. 

Stanley:  History  of  the  Jewish  Churchy  3  vols. 

Dahne:  Geschichtliche  Darstelhmg  der  Judisch-Alexan- 
dria?iische?i  Philosophie. 

Derenbourg:  Histoire  de  la  Palestine. 

The  works  of  Josephus  and  Philo. 

Drummond:  Philo  Judaeus. 


28      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Histories  of  Greece  by  Grote,  Curtius,  Busolt,  Holm, 
Abbott. 

Histories  of  Rome  by  Mommsen,  Ihne,  Merivale, 
Arnold. 

Wenley:   T/ie  Preparatioti  for  Christiaiiity . 

Breed :   The  Preparation  of  the  World  for  Christ. 

The  Introductions  to  all  the  general  church  histories. 

A.   The  Separate  Preparations 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  remarkable  developments 
were  going  on  simultaneously  in  different  geographical 
localities,  and  in  different  environments.  In  each 
of  these  developments  special  elements  were  preparing 
which  were  later  on  to  be  found  necessary  to  the  gen- 
eral movement.  We  have  the  development  of  the 
Jews,  the  Chaldeans,  the  Assyrians,  the  Arabians,  the 
Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans  with  their 
ideas  and  institutions,  many  of  which  were  later  on  to 
play  so  prominent  a  part  in  the  progress  of  the  world. 

B.  The  Movements  Towards  Unity 

One  of  the  strongest  passions  in  human  nature  is 
the  passion  for  unity  and  order.  This  passion  has 
shown  itself  all  through  history  in  the  great  men  who 
have  arisen  at  various  critical  junctures.  These  men 
have  had  great  organizing  power,  and  they  have  met 
with  response  and  support  from  the  people. 

The  movements  to  be  mentioned  are  examples  of 
this  universal  passion.  They  were  led  by  a  succession 
of  great  conquerors  as  Nebuchadnezzar  (B.  C.  607-588) 
who  combined  in  one  empire  Chaldea,  Assyria,  Arabia, 
Palestine,  Egypt,  and  other  countries;  Cyrus  the  Per- 
sian (B.  C.  558-529)  who  united  nearly  the  whole  of 
Asia;  Alexander  the   Great   (B.  C.    336-323)  who  con- 


Introduction  29 

quered  the  Eastern  world  and  diffused  Hellenic  cul- 
ture; and  by  the  great  Roman  generals  and  statesmen 
who  subdued  the  world  and  regulated  it. 

THE  STATE  OF  THE  WORLD  AT  THE  COMING  OF 
THE  SAVIOUR 

A.  The  Contributions  of  the  Races 

From  the  Greeks  we  get  philosophy  representing 
the  different  points  of  view.  In  Platonism  spirituality 
reached  its  highest  point  in  Greek  thought.  Plato 
(427-347  B.  C.)  was  a  theist  but  alongside  of  God  he 
admitted  the  eternity  of  matter  and  "a  realm  of  ideas, 
the  patterns  of  archetypes  or  all  realities."  His  Deity 
is  the  creator  and  controller  of  the  Universe.  Man  is 
a  permanent  personality.  There  is  a  difference 
between  virtue  and  vice  both  in  nature  and  conse- 
quence. This  difference  issues  in  the  future  happiness 
of  the  good  man  and  in  the  future  unhappiness  of  the 
bad  man. 

Plato's  most  distinguished  pupil  was  Aristotle  (384- 
322  B.  C.).  By  the  very  nature  of  his  mental  constitu- 
tion he  differed  from  his  master.  His  mind  was 
practical,  scientific,  systematic,  rather  than  mystical 
and  speculative.  His  knowledge  was  universal,  and 
he  contributed  to  all  the  great  disciplines  of  his  age. 
Aristotle  was  a  theist.  God  is  the  pure  unmoved 
mover  of  all  things,  eternally  creating  and  sustaining 
the  universe. 

His  wide  difference  frohi  Plato  is  seen  in  this:  He 
rejected  Plato's  doctrine  of  patterns  or  archetypes. 
The  universal  is  an  abstraction  from  individuals,  but 
individuals  are  not  the  mere  manifestations  of  the 
archetypes  or  universals.     It  thus  becomes  easy  to  see 


>ii      .1  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

how  Aristotle  was  the  forerunner  of  Nominalism  which 
developed  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

It  was  but  natural  that  in  the  midst  of  such  Titanic 
efforts  to  explain  the  universe  some  people  should 
conclude  that  the  problem  was  insoluble.  This  despair 
of  knowledge  was  expressed  by  Pyrrho,  365-275  B.  C. 
Judging  from  what  he  saw,  from  the  lack  of  agreement 
among  philosophers  on  all  the  essential  problems,  he 
said  the  more  we  speculate  the  more  unhappy  we  shall 
be.  The  true  course  then  is  to  make  no  positive  state- 
ments on  either  side  since  it  is  just  as  easy  to  prove 
one    side    as   the   other.      The   thing   most   desired    is 

calmness — arapa^ta. 

W'c  thus  understand  the  entrance  of  skepticism  into 
Greek  thought,  and  it  is  to  have  great  influence. 
Later  on  the  skeptics  are  to  occupy  the  chair  of  Plato 
at  Athens.  The  skeptics  are  to  reappear  again  and 
again  in  the  stream  of  history. 

The  Epicureans  taking  their  name  from  Epicurus, 
born  about  340  B.  C,  were  materialistic.  In  their 
search  for  the  highest  good  they  found  it  in  happiness. 
This  theory  when  reduced  to  practice  led  to  conse- 
quences which  Epicurus  did   not  foresee. 

The  school  of  Stoicism  was  founded  by  Zeno,  of 
Citium,  who  committed  suicide  about  260  B.  C.  The 
Stoics  were  on  a  much  higher  plane  than  the  Epicu- 
reans. They  were  pantheistic.  They  looked  with 
disdain  upon  the  principles  and  practices  of  Epicu- 
reanism. They  regarded  the  universe  as  a  stupendous 
organism  pervaded  and  informed  by  one  universal 
Spirit.  The  process  is  emanation  and  absorption, 
"Individuals  are  like  the  waves  of  the  sea  which  are 
but  the  transient  forms  which  the  mass  of  the  waters 
for  the   moment  bears."     The  wise   man   lives  within 


Introduction  31 

himself,  and  is  serene  regardless  of  the  accidents  of 
life 

The  consciousness  of  imperfection  in  all  these  phil- 
osophical conceptions  led  to  an  eclecticism  which 
found  no  satisfaction  in  any  of  the  great  systems,  but 
which  sought  to  discover  and  combine  the  truth  in 
them  all.  The  best  early  representative  of  eclecticism 
was  Philo  Judaeus,  a  contemporary  of  Jesus.  While 
we  see  in  Philo  the  meeting  and  mingling  of  Greek 
and  Jewish  streams  of  thought  we  see  at  the  same 
time  the  decadence  of  Greek  philosophy. 

Philosophy  was  the  religion  of  the  Greeks.  In  it 
they  found  the  explanation  of  man,  society  and  the 
world.  Although  system  after  system  decayed  and 
fell,  and  philosophy  disappointed  the  highest  hopes 
of  its  devotees,  it  nevertheless  became  a  source  of 
discipline  and  preparation,  and  contributed  mightily 
to  the  advancement  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

Greek  culture  and  philosophy  spread  through  all  the 
Mediterranean  lands  and  the  dominions  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  "Wherever  Alexander  went  he  grafted 
western  civilization  on  Orientalism,  never  losing  sight 
of  his  ultimate  object,  that  merging  of  east  and  west 
which  he  symbolized  by  his  wedding  with  the  Bactrian 
princess,  Roxana." 

The  Greeks  had  given  the  world  a  spiritual  inter- 
pretation of  the  universe,  but  it  came  far  short  of 
abiding  satisfaction.  The  Jews  were  to  advance  far 
beyond  anything  that  heathenism  could  offer.  Their 
chief  contribution  was  unique  in  that  it  set  forth  the 
idea  of  one  God,  and  promised  a  Saviour. 

They  became  divided  into  parties:  the  Pharisees 
who  were  rigidly  orthodox,  formal,  casuistical,  often 
hypocritical;  the  Sadducees  who  were  priestly,  averse 


32      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

to  foreigners,  rationalistic;  the  Essenes  who  dwelt 
between  Jerusalem  and  the  Dead  Sea  and  were  monas- 
tic in  their  general  characteristics. 

There  were  many  Jews  in  Alexandria.  The  greatest 
man  among  them  was  Philo,  who  being  impressed 
with  the  essential  agreement  of  much  of  Plato's  philos- 
ophy with  Old  Testament  teaching,  sought  to  combine 
them. 

The  great  leading  doctrines  of  Judaism  were  accord- 
ingly peculiarly  adapted  to  the  deepest  needs  of 
heathenism,  and  already  at  the  coming  of  the  Saviour, 
monotheism  was  looked  upon  with  high  favor. 

The  extent  of  Jewish  influence  was  very  broad.  The 
Jews  were  in  a  very  marked  degree  a  commercial  peo- 
ple, and  through  their  commerce  they  had  reached  the 
ends  of  civilization,  carrying  with  them  their  religious 
doctrines.  Naturally,  therefore,  there  was  a  Jewish 
synagogue  in  almost  every  city. 

To  Rome  we  owe  the  clearest  conception  of  univer- 
sality the  world  has  yet  seen.  Rome  started  with  a 
struggle  for  existence.  She  early  made  the  discovery 
that  a  compact  between  the  inhabitants  of  two  of  her 
hills  would  be  for  the  highest  interest  of  both  hills. 
From  this  beginning  she  advanced  through  conquest 
and  political  wisdom  to  universal  dominion. 

But  to  the  conception  of  universality  she  added  the 
conception  of  practical  politics  which  realizes  itself 
in  her  dealings  with  the  nations  which  she  conquered. 

By  the  very  impulse  of  her  ideas  and  her  environ- 
ments she  was  led  to  the  conception  of  law  through 
which  she  was  able  to  break  through  the  barriers  of 
race  and  religion  and  unite  the  peoples  whom  she  con- 
quered into  one  vast  empire.  And  as  the  empire  grew 
and    became   organized   great   roads,    "straight   as   an 


Introduction  33 

arrow,"    were    built    which   rendered    communication 
quick  and  easy  for  that  day. 

"Greece,"  says  Freeman,  "won  the  intellectual 
dominion  of  the  world  by  her  arts  and  her  philosophy, 
Rome  won  the  political  dominion  of  the  world  by  her 
arms  and  kept  it  by  her  abiding  law.  ...  If  the 
Aryan  world  of  Europe  has  learned  its  arts  and  its 
laws  from  its  own  elder  brethren,  it  is  from  the  Semitic 
stranger  that  it  has  learned  its  faith.  But  before  the 
Semitic  faith  could  become  the  faith  of  Rome  and  of 
Europe  it  had  to  be  defined  by  the  subtlety  of  Grecian 
intellect;  the  constitution  of  its  organized  society  had 
to  be  wrought  into  shape  by  the  undying  genius  of 
Roman  rule.  This  Semitic  faith,  banished  from  its 
Semitic  home,  became  the  badge  of  Rome's  dominion: 
the  sway  of  Christ  and  Caesar  became  words  of  the 
same  meaning"  {Comparative  Politics,  pp.  42,  43). 

B.  The  Prevailing  Despair  of  the  World 

That  intense  dissatisfaction  was  diffused  throughout 
society  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  coming  is  one  of  the 
commonplaces  of  history.  Everywhere  there  was  deep 
longing  for  some  eternal  verity  upon  which  mankind 
could  rest  and  build  its  hopes.  Philosophy,  states- 
manship, religion,  had  all  done  their  best,  but  failed 
to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  real  man.  Morality  had 
become  lax,  vice  prevailed,  souls  that  had  not  become 
insensible  were  tormented  with  remorse.  In  the 
face  of  death  there  was  dark  resignation,  or  utter  hope- 
lessness, or  outbursts  of  wrath  against  the  gods.  This 
is  seen  in  many  of  the  epitaphs  that  have  been  pre- 
served, of  which  these  are  specimens:  "I,  Procope, 
lift  up  my  hands  against  the  gods  who  took  me  hence, 
though  innocent." 


'M      A  Short  Tlhtory  of  the  Chrlstmn  Church 

"Farewell,  farewell,  oh  most  sweet,  forever  and 
eternally,  farewell." 

"Our  hope  was  in  our  boy;  now  all  is  ashes  and 
lamentations." 

"Once  I  was  not;  now  I  am  not;  I  know  nothing 
about  it;  it  does  not  concern  me." 

"Fortune  makes  many  promises,  but  keeps  none; 
live  for  the  present"    (Farrar:  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Vol. 

I,   P-  13). 

The  time  had  come  for  the  advent  of  some  new 
regenerating  force.  "In  the  fulness  of  time  God  sent 
forth  his  Son." 

THE  DIVISIONS  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY 

All  divisions  in  history  are  more  or  less  arbitrary. 
But  the  limitations  of  our  intellectual  powers  make 
divisions  necessary  in  the  investigation  of  all  complex 
subjects.  It  is  true,  moreover,  that  while  all  parts  of 
history  are  organically  connected,  there  are  points 
which  seem  to  be  decisive  in  the  flow  of  events,  points 
which  determine  this  flow  in  one  direction  rather  than 
in  others  which  it  might  have  taken. 

These  points  have  been  seized  upon  by  historians  for 
the  bases  of  the  divisions  they  are  obliged  to  make. 

It  is  customary  to  divide  Church  History: 

A.  According  to  Time 

a.  Ancient  Church  History — B.  C.  4-A.  D.  590,  or 
from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  Gregory  the  Great. 

b.  Mediaeval  Church  History — 590-1517;  or  from 
Gregory  the  Great  to  the  posting  of  the  ninety-five 
theses. 

c.  Modern  Church  History,  from  the  posting  of  the 
ninety-five  theses  to  the  present  time. 


Introduction  36 

B.    According  to   Subject  Matter 

a.  The  Relations  of  Church  and  State. 

d.  Church  Extension  or  Christian  Missions. 

c.  Christian  Doctrines  and  the  Controversies  grow- 
ing out  of  them  leading  to  the  origin  and  development 
of  Christian  Theology. 

^.   Christian  Life  and  Worship. 

e.  Christian  Literature. 


BOOK    FIRST 
ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY 

{B.  C.4-A.D.S90.) 

Literature 

Harnack:  Geschichte  der  Altchristliche?i  Litter atur  bis 
Eusebius. 

Cheetham:   Church  History:  Early  Period. 

Hatch:    The  Organizatio?i  of  the  Early  Christian  Church, 

Bright:   Some  Aspects  of  Primitive  Church  Life. 

Farrar:  Lives  of  tJie  Fathers. 

Banks :   The  Development  of  Doctrine. 

Orr :  Neglected  Factors  in  the  Study  of  the  Early  Progress 
of  Christianity. 

Inge :  Society  in  Rome  under  the  Caesars. 

Baur:   Church  History  in  the  First  Three  Centuries. 

Cunningham  :  The  Growth  of  the  Church  in  its  Organiza- 
tion and  InstitutioTis. 

Uhlhorn :    The  Conflict  of  Christianity  and  Heathenism. 

Lecky :  The  History  of  Morals  from  Augustus  to  Char- 
lemagne. 

Hodgkin:  Italy  and  Her  Invaders — in  eight  volumes. 
Indispensable. 

Bindley:   The  CEcumenical  Doc7ime?its  of  the  Faith. 

Heurtley :  A  History  of  the  Earlier  Formularies  of  the 
Faith. 

Early  Church  History  to  A.D.  4J0.  A  course  of  fifteen 
lectures  by  as  many  distinguished  Churchme^i. 

Stevens  and  Burton :  Harmo?iy  of  the  Gospels  for  His- 

37 


38      A  Short  History  of  the  Christinn  Church 

torical  Study.     Other   Ilarmonirs  arc   Broadus,  Robinson 
and  Clark. 

Lives  of  Christ  by:  Edersheim,  Weiss,  Geikie,  Keim, 
Andrews,  Farrar. 

Burton  ami  Mathews:   Constncctive  Studies  in  the  Life  of 
Christ.     Of  great  value  especially  for  its  method. 

Burton :   TJie  Records  and  Letters  of  the  Apostolic  Age. 

Bollinger:   The  First  Age  of  Christia?iity  a?id  the  Church. 

Ramsay :   The  Church  in  the  Ro?na?i  Empire  before  ijo. 
St.  Paid  the  Traveller  and  Ro?nan  Citizen. 

Weizsacker:    The  Apostolic  Age  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Lightfoot :  Dissertatiom  o?i  the  Apostolic  Age. 

McGiffert:   The  Apostolic  Age. 

Bartlett:   The  Apostolic  Age. 

Vedder :   The  Daivn  of  Christia?nty . 

Schiller :  Geschichte  der  Romischen  Kaiserzeit  unter  der 
Regierung  des  Neros. 

Marsh:   The  New  Testament  Church. 

Lanciani:  jst.    A?icie?it  Ro?ne. 

2d.  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome, 
jd.    The  Rui?is   aiid  Excavatio?is   of  Ancient 
Rome.     Of  first  importance  for  Roman  Archaeology. 

H.  M.  and  M.  A.  R.  T. :  Christia?i  a?id  Ecclesiastical 
Rome. 

Cruttwell :   ist.    A  Literary  History  of  Early  Christianity. 
2d.  A  History  of  Roman  Literature. 

Zriiger:  History  of  Early  Christian  Literature. 

Mathews :  Social  Teachings  of  Jesus. 

Within  this  period  Christianity  has  its  origin,  establishes  itself 
in  the  face  of  fiery  persecutions;  extends  itself  throughout  the 
Roman  empire ;  becomes  the  religion  of  state;  expresses  itself  in 
doctrines,  orders  and  institutions ;  and  in  the  course  of  its  marvel- 
lous career  makes  mistakes  from  the  consequences  of  which  it 
suffers  even  in  our  own  days. 


CHAPTER   I 
THE    APOSTOLIC   AGE 

(B.C.   4 — A.D.    lOO) 

This  period  of  church  history  even  in  its  barest  out- 
lines cannot  be  understood  apart  from  some  knowledge 
of  the  entire  life  of  the  age — political,  social,  and 
literary,  as  well  as  religious.  We  are  thus  led  to 
notice: 

A.    The  State  of  Politics  and  Society 

At  the  opening  of  our  period  the  Roman  republic 
exists  longer  only  in  form,  it  has  really  yielded  its 
place  to  the  empire.  This  empire  embraced  the  civil- 
ized world.  The  great  Augustus  knew  how  to  be  con- 
tented with  the  substance  if  not  the  form  of  dominion. 
There  was  consequently  no  revolution  that  the  people 
could  see.  The  Romans  civilized  wherever  they  con- 
quered; distinctions  that  were  in  the  way  of  unity  were 
broken  down;  yet  the  individuality  of  the  conquered 
peoples  was  properly  preserved.  The  result  was  that 
these  peoples  began  "to  look  upon  themselves  as 
Romans";  a  spirit  of  loyalty  developed,  and  Rome 
gradually  ceased  to  be  the  ruling  city,  to  become  the 
capital  of  the  Empire.  But  having  thus  begun  to  part 
with  her  power  she  lost  it  more  and  more  until  at  last 
other  cities  supplanted  her  even  in  this  honor. 

It  has  been  said  that  distinctions  were  broken  down — 
but  there  were  certain  distinctions  deeply  drawn  in  the 
nature  of  the  situation  which  could  not  be  obliterated. 

39 


40      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

They  arc  known  as  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Oriental  dis- 
tinctions. They  prove  to  be  the  lines  of  cleavage  in 
the  political  and  religious  divisions  that  are  to  follow. 

Augustus,  however,  during  the  forty-one  years  of  his 
reign  had  quietly  and  without  attracting  attention 
centered  in  himself  all  the  offices  of  the  Senate  and 
the  people;  had  maintained  internal  peace;  had 
secured  great  material  prosperity.  In  short,  he  had 
rendered  the  world  a  service  too  great  to  be  estimated. 
But  yet  the  empire  was  not  to  endure  as  a  visible 
empire.  It  had  been  ages  in  growing;  it  had  devel- 
oped ideas  and  institutions  that  were  to  be  inwrought 
into  the  fabric  of  great  states  yet  unborn.  Through  a 
long  and  painful  process  it  is  to  decay,  and  in  so  doing 
it  is  to  bequeath  its  treasures  to  coming  generations. 
Augustus  had  set  a  standard  to  which  few  of  his  suc- 
cessors could  attain,  and  it  was  fortunate  for  the  world 
that  they  could  not  reach  his  altitude,  because  the 
welfare  of  mediaeval  and  modern  civilization  involved 
the  dissolution  of  the  empire.  When  Augustus  dies 
the  end — far  off,  indeed — has  already  begun.  His 
immediate  successor  is  the  cruel  and  tyrannical 
Tiberius,  who  is  followed  by  the  savage  and  insane 
Caligula,  the  weak  and  vacillating  Claudius,  and  the 
monstrous  Nero. 

We  are  to  note  during  our  period  some  extension  of 
empire;  the  rapid  growth  of  centralization;  the  crea- 
tion of  large  veteran  armies  which  "are  loyal  to  no 
country."  Literature,  brilliant  in  the  beginning  of 
the  century,  declines  towards  the  end.  Immorality 
and  vice  increase,  and  by  the  close  of  the  century  in 
the  alternate  triumphs  of  the  good  and  the  bad,  the 
signs  of  political  and  social  dissolution  in  the  empire 
are  unmistakable. 


The  Apostolic  Age  41 

B.    The  Religious  Life 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  life  in  the 
ancient  world  had  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  disap- 
pointment and  a  failure.  There  had  been  no  lack  of 
success  so  far  as  literature,  or  art,  or  generalship,  or 
statesmanship,  was  concerned.  Nay  more,  the  prob- 
lems of  life  itself  had  been  wrestled  with  by  some  of 
the  profoundest  and  most  serious  minds  that  any  age 
has  produced.  Ethical  systems  of  permanent  his- 
torical value  had  been  wrought  out  by  the  Greeks.  No 
fault  could  be  found  with  their  idealism,  but  the  posi- 
tive influence  of  these  systems  on  practical  life  counted 
for  little. 

The  Jews,  with  their  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God, 
had  likewise  expressed  their  urgent  longings  in  their 
prophets,  and  psalmists  and  lawgivers,  but  yet,  as  the 
centuries  rolled  on,  life  became  more  and  more 
unbearable,  became  the  prolific  source  of  sin  and  sor- 
row— the  human  will  remained  untouched.  Their 
only  hope  of  relief  was  found  in  the  expectation  of  a 
Messiah.  It  is  no  wonder  then  that  mankind,  sin- 
sick,  disappointed,  weary,  and  uncertain,  was  shrouded 
in  gloom. 

A.     THE   LIFE    AND    TEACHINGS    OF    JESUS 

At  this  critical  stage  in  the  evolution  of  human  his- 
tory, four  years  before  the  date  usually  assigned  for 
the  beginning  of  the  new  era,  Jesus  was  born  in 
Bethlehem  of  Judea.  He  descended  through  the 
royal  line  of  David.  He  grew  up  in  His  home  at 
Nazareth,  in  Galilee,  unobserved,  receiving  the  cus- 
tomary religious  training  of  the  Jewish  boy  of  the 
time.  During  His  childhood  at  Nazareth  we  are  told 
that:     The  Child  grew  and  waxed  strong,  filled  with 


4'^       A  Short  History  of  tlic  Christian  Church 

wisdom;  and  the  grace  of  God  was  upon  Him.  When 
twelve  years  old  He  visited  Jerusalem  with  His  parents, 
and  amazed  the  doctors  with  His  understanding  and 
answers.  He  then  returned  to  Nazareth  where  He 
remained  eighteen  years,  and  was  subject  unto  His  par- 
ents, and  advanced  in  wisdom  and  stature,  and  in 
favor  with  God  and  men. 

When  He  was  thirty  years  old  He  was  baptized  of 
John  in  the  Jordan;  was  tempted  in  the  wilderness  and 
entered  upon  His  public  life  and  teaching.  He  chose 
His  disciples  and  soon  the  fame  of  Him  had  spread 
through  all  Palestine,  and  the  multitudes  thronged 
Him.  He  gradually  unfolded  His  great  mission  which 
was  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  He 
always  preceded  His  teachings  with  deeds  of  love  and 
mercy,  thus  teaching  by  example  as  well  as  precept. 

When  John  sent  from  his  prison  to  ask  Him,  "Art 
Thou  he  that  cometh  or  look  we  for  another?"  Jesus 
answered  and  said  unto  them:  "Go  and  tell  John  the 
things  which  ye  do  hear  and  see;  the  blind  receive  their 
sight,  and  the  lame  walk,  and  the  lepers  are  cleansed, 
and  the  deaf  hear,  and  the  dead  are  raised  up,  and 
the  poor  have  good  tidings  preached  to  them.  And 
blessed  is  he,  whosoever  shall  find  none  occasion  of 
stumbling  in  Me"  (Matthew  ii:  3-6). 

But  it  was  not  long  until  opposition  from  the  scribes 
and  Pharisees  arose  against  Him.  They  saw  clearly 
enough  that  His  triumph  meant  their  defeat.  His  doc- 
trines were  in  harmony  with  the  Judaism  of  the  past, 
but  they  were  radically  antagonistic  to  the  Pharisaism 
of  the  present.  The  enmity  thus  aroused  deepened 
hour  by  hour.  Many  in  the  multitudes  as  they  saw 
the  real  nature  of  His  proposed  kingdom  fell  away. 
But  He  grew  more  definite  and  more  positive  in  His 


The  Apostolic  Age  43 

teachings,  more  severe  in  His  denunciations  of  the 
hypocrisies  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees.  At  the  end 
of  three  years  He  was  betrayed,  arrested,  and  in  the 
course  of  His  farcical  trial  before  Caiaphas  said  abso- 
lutely to  His  enemies  that  He  was  the  Messiah.  Then 
after  another  unjust  trial  before  Pilate  He  was  scourged 
and  crucified.  After  three  days  He  arose  from  the 
dead;  appeared  during  forty  days  at  various  times  to 
His  disciples;  and  was  received  up  into  heaven  and  sat 
down  at  the  right  hand  of  God.  "And  there  are  also 
many  other  things  which  Jesus  did,  the  which,  if  they 
should  be  written,  every  one,  I  suppose  that  even  the 
world  itself  could  not  contain  the  books  that  should  be 
written"  (John  21:  25). 

In  this  life  we  have  a  perfect  and  harmonious  union 
of  history  and  idealism.  Jesus,  in  all  His  teachings, 
made  prom.inent  His  vital  connection  and  His  oneness 
with  the  Father.  Moreover,  His  acts  made  clear  His 
practical  mission  to  mankind.  As  He  was  sitting  at 
meat  in  Matthew's  house,  and  many  publicans  and 
sinners  were  sitting  with  Him  and  His  disciples,  the 
scribes  and  the  Pharisees  were  shocked  and  spoke  of  it 
to  His  disciples.  "And  when  Jesus  heard  it  He  saith 
unto  them:  They  that  are  whole  have  no  need  of  a 
physician,  but  they  that  are  sick;  I  came  not  to  call 
the  righteous  but  sinners"  (Mark  2:   17). 

Thus  in  the  life  and  teachings  of  Jesus  the  dark 
problems  of  human  life  are  solved;  the  defects  in  all 
previous  ideas  and  systems  are  rounded  out;  sin  is  not 
justified,  but  through  faith  sin  may  be  destroyed  and 
its  consequences  removed.  "Through  these  facts  man 
is  admitted  into  a  new  moral  environment,  his  social 
being  is  seen  in  the  light  of  a  spiritual  order."  God 
and    man   are   united   through    faith    in    Christ.       The 


44       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ideal  relation  of  man's  sonship  to  God  finds  practical 
expression  in  the  universal  brotherhood  of  the  human 
race. 

B.  THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE  CHURCH 

We  have  already  observed  that  the  great  mission  of 
our  Lord  was  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of 
God.  He  entered  upon  His  work  using  the  words  of 
John  the  Baptist:  "The  kingdom  of  God  is  at  hand; 
repent  ye"  (Mark  i:   15). 

The  expression,  "kingdom  of  God,"  is  used  in  the 
Gospels  one  hundred  and  twelve  times.  It  was  to  be  a 
spiritual  kingdorn.  It  was  to  embrace  all  the  re- 
deemed of  all  ages,  of  all  races,  of  all  conditions,  on 
earth  and  in  heaven.  He  Himself  sitting  at  the  right 
hand  of  the  Father,  was  to  be  the  King.  From  the 
beginning  there  could  be  no  false  or  hypocritical 
members  of  this  kingdom.  The  visible  members  on 
earth  may  be  full  of  imperfections,  but  they  will  have 
the  love  of  God  in  their  hearts  and  at  last  this  mighty 
principle  will  rule  them.* 

Thus  the  kingdom  of  God  is  founded,  but  its  com- 
plete realization  is  far  in  the  future.  The  grand  final 
consummation  is  to  be  brought  about  through  indi- 
viduals co-operating  in  communities  which  the  Apos- 
tles called  churches.  These  churches  are  to  be  created 
and  directed  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Master  has 
said:  "It  is  expedient  for  you  that  I  go  away:  for  if  I 
go  not  away  the  Comforter  will  not  come  unto  you; 
but  if  I  depart  I  will  send  Him  unto  you"   (John  8:  7). 

The  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  occurred  on  the 
great  day  of  Pentecost,  ten  days  after  the  ascension, 
on  Sunday  (Acts  2:   1-12). 

♦See  Hastings  :  Z>/r/.  of  Bib.,  Art.  "Kingdom  of  God." 


The  Apostolic  Age  45 

At  this  point  the  church  may  be  said  to  enter  upon 
its  great  career. 

C.     CHURCH    ORGANIZATION 

Evidently,  the  great  mission  of  the  church  cannot  be 
accomplished  without  organization.  There  are  many 
separate  communities.  They  must  be  orderly  within 
themselves,  and  they  must  be  harmonious  among 
themselves.  That  this  internal  and  external  order 
existed  cannot  be  doubted.  But  when  we  inquire  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  organization  we  find  the  widest  diver- 
gence of  opinion  among  scholars.  Four  leading  types 
of  view  are  maintained  to-day. 

The  World  Church  Theory , 

"Shortly  after  His  glorious  ascension  a  religious 
society  sprang  into  existence,  the  members  of  which 
being  united  under  one  head,  Christ,  professed  the 
same  faith,  participated  in  the  same  sacraments  and 
were  governed  by  the  divinely  inspired  apostles,  with 
Peter  at  their  head.  This  office  is  still  continued  by 
their  lawful  successors,  the  Popes  and  the  bishops  of 
the  church.  .  .  .  The  church  ...  is  the  kingdom  of 
Christ  on  earth"  (Alzog,  U?iiv.  Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  i.,  p.  3). 

From  this  statement  we  understand  that  the  Chris- 
tian ministry  is  a  priesthood;  that  the  priesthood  is  an 
office;  that  Christ  can  be  approached  and  worshiped 
acceptably  only  through  this  office.  The  man  in  the 
office  is  a  minor  consideration,  but  the  office  itself  is 
of  prime  importance. 

The  National  Church  Theory 

According  to  this  view  church  members  in  a  nation 
should  be  subject  to  a  national  synod  or  organization. 


4G       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Its  positions  are  stated  as  follows: 

1st.   Our  Lord  nominated  the  Apostles. 

2d,  The  Apostles  ordained  elders  in  every  church, 
and  deacons  in  the  Church  of  Jerusalem. 

3d.  Paul  left  Titus  in  Crete  to  ordain  elders  in  every 
city,  and  gave  Timothy  directions  to  ordain  elders  in 
Ephesus. 

4th.  This  was  the  custom  in  all  the  churches  in  the 
world  for  one  thousand  five  hundred  years.* 

This  theory  is  closely  related  to  the  preceding  one. 

The  best  example  is  the  Church  of  England.  Almost 
identical  is  the  Episcopalian  polity.  Kindred  but 
differing  widely  is  the  polity  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church. 

T/ie  Presbyterian  Polity 

The  leading  characteristics  are:  ist.  A  simple 
method,  orderly  but  not  ritualistic.  2d.  A  represent- 
ative system  of  government  which  gives  the  laity  a 
place  of  equality  with  the  clergy  in  church  affairs. 
3d.  A  reasoned  Scriptural  doctrine,  free  from  extrava- 
gance, appealing  to  the  spiritual  intelligence,  and 
resting  upon  conviction  rather  than  upon  impulse. f 

The  Congregational  Polity 
The  view  finds  in  the  Apostolic  church: 
1st.   The  absolute  independence  of  the  local  church. 
2d.  The  priesthood  of  all  believers. 
There  was   no    recognition   of   fixed    orders   in    the 
ministry,  or  officers  in   the  church   through  which,  as 
media,  the  individual  must  have  access  to  God. 

*See  Cutts :  Turnmg  Points  Gen.  Ch.  Hzst.,  p.  115,  and 
Bright :  Some  Aspects  of  Prim.  Ch.  Life,  pp.  i-ioo, 

fSee  Rev.  Alexander  McEwen,  D.D.,  in  N.  Y.  Independent^ 
July  6,  1896.     Also  McPherson  :  Presbyterianism. 


The  Apostolic  Age  47 

3d.  The  greatest  emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  per- 
sonal character  of  the  one  who  was  to  minister  the 
word,  and  execute  the  laws  of  love  that  permeated  the 
life  and  teachings  of  Jesus. 

4th.    Freedom  in  the  choice  of  ministers. 

5th.  Christian  fellowship  for,  and  sympathetic 
co-operation  with,  all  churches  of  the  same  faith  and 
order. 

In  harmony  with  this  view  it  may  be  said  that:  A 
church  is  ideally  a  voluntary  organization  consisting 
of  regenerated  and  baptized  believers  in  Jesus  Christ. 
The  mission  of  a  church  is  the  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  in  its  individual  members  and  in  all 
the  world.  A  church  is  an  agency  for  the  extension 
of  the  kingdom  of  God.  A  church  aims  at  the  highest 
attainable  development  of  the  personality  of  each  one 
of  its  members,  and  it  becomes  strong  and  efficient 
as  a  body  just  in  proportion  as  each  of  its  members  is 
symmetrically  strong.* 

Very  early  in  their  existence  the  churches  required 
for  their  spiritual  life  certain  officers.  Thus  overseers 
and  teachers  were  needed  at  once  and  they  appeared 
as  bishops,  or  presbyters,  or  pastors.  The  care  of  the 
poor  and  the  proper  distribution  of  alms  led  to  the 
appointment  of  deacons.  Very  soon,  therefore,  the 
two  great  offices  of  the  early  church — the  pastorate 
and  the  diaconate — were  fixed. 

Each  of  these  forms  of  organization  has  in  our  times 
a  large  and  powerful  following.  The  debate  between 
them,  which   suffers   from    no    lack   of   vigor,    is    con- 

*See  Walker  :  Creeds  and  Platforms  of  Congregationalism. 
Strong  :  Systematic  Theology — Ecclesiology.  Dargan  :  Ecclesi- 
ology — A  Study  of  the  Churches.  Hastings:  Diet.  Bib.,  Arts. 
"Church"  and  "Church  Government." 


48      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ducted  on  a  high  plane  of  Christian  scholarship. 
The  standard  of  appeal  is  and  must  remain  the  right 
interpretation  of  the  New  Testament.  The  correctness 
of  New  Testament  interpretation  will  be  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  fruits  of  each  polity  as  found  in  history. 

D.     THE    ORDINANCES    OF    THE    CHURCH 

As  in  the  case  of  organization  so  opinions  differ 
widely  in  regard  to  the  ordinances.  These  differences 
pertain  to  the  nature  and  the  number  of  the  sacra- 
ments. 

According  to  the  Roman  Catholic  there  were  seven 
sacraments:  Baptism,  the  Lord's  Supper,  Ordination, 
Penance,  Marriage,  Extreme  Unction,  Confirmation. 
These  ordinances  have  regenerating  power,  and  the 
recipient  is  made  holy  through  their  efficacy.  Many 
Protestants,  while  rejecting  the  number  seven  agree, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  as  to  the  power  of  Baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  to  confer  grace. 

Protestants  find  but  two  ordinances  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament— Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Those  who 
are  not  sacramentalists  regard  these  ordinances  as: 
"Those  outward  rites  which  Christ  has  appointed  to  be 
administered  in  His  church  as  visible  signs  of  the  sav- 
ing truth  of  the  Gospel.  They  are  signs  in  that  they 
vividly  express  this  truth  and  confirm  it  to  the 
believer"  (See  Strong:  Sjst.    Theol..^  p.  520). 

Upon  profession  of  faith  in  Christ  believers  were 
admitted  into  the  church  through  baptism  into  the  name 
of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  form  of  baptism  was  immersion.  The  New 
Testament  is  silent  as  to  the  baptism  of  infants.* 

*See  Hastings:  Diet.  Bib.,  Art.  "Baptism" — for  general  dis- 
cussion and  literature. 


The  Apostolic  Age  49 

The  Lord's  Supper  early  became  the  central  ordi- 
nance of  the  church.  In  the  course  of  history  it  grew 
into  one  of  the  main  sources  of  contention  and  conflict 
— in  Romanism  before  the  Reformation,  in  Protes- 
tantism during  and  after  the  Reformation. 

The  passages  in  the  New  Testament  which  have  an 
undoubted  bearing  on  the  subject  are:  Matt.  26: 
26-28;  Mark  14:  22-24;  Luke  22:  19,  20.  Also  i  Cor. 
10:   16-22  and  II:  23-29. 

It  will  be  observed  that  only  Luke  contains  the 
clause:  This  do  in  remembrance  of  me,  which  is 
repeated  in  Acts  11:  25. 

With  so  much  of  a  Scriptural  basis,  and  the  fact  that 
the  ordinance  was  generally  observed  in  the  churches 
immediately  following  the  times  of  the  Apostles,  we 
seem  warranted  in  the  conclusion  that:  The  Lord's 
Supper  was  instituted  by  Christ  as  a  remembrance  to 
show  forth  his  death  till  he  come;  and  that  the  ordi- 
nance was  intended  to  be  perpetual  and  universal.* 

E.  DOCTRINAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  CHURCH 

Our  Lord  had  left  nothing  uncertain  about  the 
nature  of  the  kingdom  of  God;  or  the  conditions  of 
admission  to  the  kingdom;  or  His  own  divine  person- 
ality; or  the  practical  duties  of  life  as  seen  in  His 
ethics;  or  the  reality  of  the  future  life  towards  which 
all  men  were  hastening. 

But  it  is  probably  certain  that  His  own  disciples — 
much  more  the  multitudes— did  not  fully  understand 
his  unique  life  and  teachings.  Yet  His  death  and  the 
events  of  the  forty  days  made  a  profound  impression. 
The    depth    and    extent    of   meaning   in    it    all  began 

♦For  discussion  and  literature,  see  Art.  "The  Lord's  Supper," 
Hastings:  Diet,  Bib. 


60       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

immediately  to  awaken  the  thought  of  the  Apostles 
and  of  all  intelligent  people.  These  ideas  and  prin- 
ciples had  the  strongest  affinity  for  everything  that 
was  good  in  the  world  whether  it  was  Jewish  or  Gen- 
tile. They  recognized  fully  the  culture,  and  the 
thought  and  the  varied  personalities  of  that  time  and 
of  all  possible  times.  The  cultivation  and  develop- 
ment of  these  germinal  ideas  would,  if  permitted  to 
proceed  freely,  lead  to  the  elimination  of  sin  and 
imperfection,  and  then  to  ideal  individuals,  and  ulti- 
mately to  an  ideal  society.  They  were  nothing  short 
of  universal.  And  their  first  work  must  be  done  on 
indi\-iduals.  They  do  not  work  upon  humanity  in  the 
lump.  There  is  not  nor  can  there  ever  be  a  perfect 
society  that  is  not  composed  of  perfect  individuals, 
and  the  perfect  individuals  must  always  have  the 
priority.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  "A  is  the  cause 
of  B  and  B  is  the  cause  of  A,"  but  we  must  have  A  in 
some  form  before  we  can  have  B  in  any  form.  That  is 
to  say:  Perfect  individuals  are  the  cause  of  a  perfect 
society,  but  a  perfect  society  is  also  the  cause  of  per- 
fect individuals. 

That  Jesus  was  the  Messiah  was  the  fundamental 
article  of  faith  for  all  the  apostolic  writings.  His  pre- 
existence  was  clearly  taught  by  John  and  Paul.  But 
when  we  remember  the  fathomless  depths  of  His  heart, 
the  vastness  of  His  thought,  and  the  finiteness  of  the 
human  mind  and  human  language,  we  need  not  be  sur- 
prised at  the  varying  types  of  apostolic  doctrine,  or  at 
the  progress  of  doctrine  in  the  same  Apostle;  that 
Christian  theology  of  a  speculative  type  should 
originate  with  Paul;  that  John,  from  his  deep  well  of 
spiritual  intuition,  should  find  love  "the  clew  to  the 
solution   of  all   problems";   that  James  should  be  per- 


The  Apostolic  Age  51 

meated  with  a  spirit  of  perfected  legal  righteousness 
from  which  he  never  escaped. 

And  yet  these  leading  characteristics  do  not  ade- 
quately express  the  mind  of  these  Apostles,  for  Paul 
gives  almost  greater  prominence  to  the  mystical  union 
with  Christ,  and  has  a  heart  full  of  love;  John  is  pro- 
foundly speculative;  and  James  is  far  removed  from 
Pharisaism. 

Among  the  doctrines  clearly  taught  are  those  about 
God — the  "Father  of  Lights,  in  whom  there  is  no 
variableness  or  shadow  of  turning";  Faith;  Repent- 
ance; Reconciliation;  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ; 
the  Resurrection;  and  the  endowment  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  There  are  also  definite  signs  of  incipient 
Gnosticism. 

F.     CHRISTIAN     LIFE 

The  early  Christians  had  a  strong  and  steady  union 
through  the  bonds  of  Christian  love.  All  the  circum- 
stances were,  besides,  such  as  to  bind  them  together  in 
the  closest  fellowship.  Although  they  were  grouped 
into  small,  weak  and  despised  communities;  although 
their  influence  was  extremely  limited,  and  they  had 
powerful  and  relentless  enemies,  they  nevertheless 
had  an  absolute  conviction  of  the  truth  and  righteous- 
ness of  their  religion.  Such  a  conviction  when  it  is 
of  very  truth  and  is  sustained  by  persistent  energy 
always  prevails.  And  it  is  easy  to  understand  how 
this  common  spirit,  this  common  purpose  threatened 
by  this  common  danger  would  lead  to  a  compact  and 
irresistible  community,  to  a  community  in  which 
purity  of  life  would  obtain,  in  which  woman  would  be 
elevated  to  equal  companionship  with  man,  in  which 
all  the  hard  conditions  of  life  would  be  ameliorated. 


52       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

But  yet  the  community  had  scarcely  become  sure  of 
its  existence  when  differences  began  to  arise  within  it. 
Varieties  of  opinion,  the  necessary  conditions  of 
progress,  began  to  assert  themselves.  Sometimes 
these  opinions  were  true,  sometimes  they  were  false, 
more  frequently  they  were  partly  true  and  partly  false. 
Opinion  soon  manifested  itself  in  action — coarse 
worldly  temptations  bore  in  upon  the  weaker  ones; 
intellectual  pride  showed  itself  among  the  better  edu- 
cated; woman  released  from  bondage  went  to  the 
opposite  extremes — often  to  the  extent  of  indelicacy. 
Against  all  these  tendencies  the  customary  antithesis 
of  asceticism  arose.  For  instance,  marriage  became 
the  subject  of  widely  different  views.  Some  required 
it,  others  rejected  it;  others,  as  Paul,  took  a  mediating 
position.  We  are  thus  able  to  see  that  already  many 
of  the  problems  of  practical  Christian  life  have  arisen 
and  are  demanding  solution. 

The  entire  spirit  of  the  Gospel  was  antagonistic  to 
slavery.  It  could  only  be  a  question  of  time  when  the 
institution  would  be  destroyed.  Yet  the  method  of 
attack  was  gradual  and  indirect.  Christians  who 
owned  slaves  used  them  kindly,  and  the  kindness  met 
a  response  from  the  slaves.  Slaves  became  Christians 
and  there  begins  in  this  relation  the  realization  of  the 
brotherhood  of  man.  As  the  idea  of  the  universal 
brotherhood  of  man  advances,  in  the  same  ratio  will 
slavery  disappear. 

Jesus  had  taught  that  the  civil  authorities  were 
divinely  ordained,  and  that,  within  their  proper  sphere, 
they, must  be  supported  and  obeyed.  The  early  Chris- 
tians had,  therefore,  no  disposition  to  be  disobedient. 
They  were,  in  fact,  thoroughly  loyal,  and  had  the 
state   not  made   requirements  beyond   the   jurisdiction 


The  Apostolic  Age  63 

of  the  true  state,  and  requirements  impossible  for 
Christians  to  meet,  there  would  never  have  been  any 
difference  between  them  and  the  civil  authorities.  It 
cannot  be  too  strongly  or  too  constantly  emphasized, 
that  Christ  came  into  the  world  to  promote  directly  or 
indirectly  every  good  idea  and  every  good  institution. 
His  unrelenting  opposition  was  to  sin  and  evil  in  all 
their  forms.  But  this  subject  will  receive  further 
attention  under  the  persecutions. 

G.     CHURCH    EXTENSION 

Christianity  is  missionary  in  its  very  essence. 

"And  He  said  unto  them:  Thus  it  is  written,  that  the 
Christ  should  suffer  and  rise  again  the  third  day;  and 
that  repentance  and  remission  of  sins  should  be 
preached  in  His  name  unto  all  the  nations,  beginning 
from  Jerusalem.  Ye  are  witnesses  of  these  things" 
(Luke  24:  46,  47). 

"Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you.  He  that  believeth 
on  Me,  the  works  that  I  do  shall  he  do  also,  and  greater 
works  than  these  shall  he  do,  because  I  go  unto  My 
Father"  (John  14:   12). 

The  cosmopolitan  character  of  Christianity  was  seen 
in  the  wide  representation  of  nations  at  Pentecost, 
where  each  man  heard  them  speaking  in  his  own 
tongue  the  mighty  works  of  God.  This  universal  good 
news,  then,  that  touches  with  the  love  of  God  our  com- 
mon human  nature  at  its  core  is  to  go  to  the  ends  of 
the  earth.  The  movement  of  Christian  missions  starts 
at  once  upon  its  wonderful  career. 

Peter 
The  impetuous  disciple  was  the  preacher  at  Pente- 
cost.     He   had   the   true   spirit  of    his  Master,  yet  he 
never  entirely  escaped  from  the  thralldom  of  the  law. 


5-4       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Naturally,  therefore,  he  became  first  of  all  the  mis- 
sionary to  the  Jews.  Yet  not  exclusively  so,  for  his 
work  extends  among  the  hc-athen,  "beginning  with 
Cornelius."  His  preaching  extends  to  Pontus,  Cap- 
padocia,  Galatia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia.  That  Peter  was 
ever  in  Rome  is  a  tradition.  That  he  was  bishop  of 
Rome  for  twenty-five  years  has  no  sufficient  foundation 
in  fact,  although  in  the  time  of  Jerome  it  was  a  com- 
mon tradition.* 

Paul 

But  the  ideal  missionary  was  still  wanted.  He  must 
be  a  man  of  culture;  of  the  widest  sympathies;  capable 
of  appropriating  the  new  while  holding  fast  what  was 
permanent  in  the  old;  clear  and  profound  in  convic- 
tion; balanced  in  judgment;  courageous  but  calm  in 
the  most  critical  situations;  gifted  with  limitless 
endurance  and  energy.  In  short  the  ideal  missionary 
must  be  a  universal  man.     Such  was  Paul. 

The  center  for  the  Gentile  Christians  was  Antioch  in 
Syria.  It  was  from  here  that  Paul  and  his  co-laborers 
set  out  on  their  missions  to  the  heathen. 

"Now  there  were  at  Antioch  in  the  church  that  was 
there,  prophets  and  teachers.  .  .  .  And  as  they  minis- 
tered unto  the  Lord  and  fasted  the  Holy  Ghost  said. 
Separate  me  Barnabas  and  Saul  for  the  work  where- 
unto  I  have  called  them.  Then,  when  they  had  fasted 
and  prayed  they  laid  their  hands  on  them  and  sent  them 
away"  (Acts  13:   1-4). 

From  this  moment  the  Gospel  began  to  spread  over 
the  nations  of  all  the  world.  Paul  was  the  chief  agent 
in  this  extension.     In  the  first  missionary  journey  he 

♦For  a  short  re-examination  of  evidence,  see  Foster :  Funda- 
mental Ideas  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Churchy  pp.  12-16. 


The  Apostolic  Age  55 

and  Barnabas  went  to  Cyprus  preaching-  in  its  chief 
cities,  then  to  various  towns  in  Asia  Minor — as  Anti- 
och  in  Pisidia,  Iconium  and  Lystra. 

On  the  second  journey,  accompanied  by  Silas,  he 
revisited  some  of  the  churches  in  Asia  Minor,  then — 
led  by  a  vision,  he  crossed  the  narrow  strait  into 
Europe,  preaching  in  Philippi,  Thessalonica,  Berea, 
Athens,  and  Corinth. 

On  a  third  journey  he  remained  two  years  at  Ephesus 
after  which  he  visited  Macedonia  and  Greece,  and 
then  came  to  Jerusalem.  Here  he  was  arrested  by  the 
Roman  captain  of  the  Temple,  and  after  two  years 
confinement  at  Caesarea,  as  a  prisoner  he  goes  on  his 
mission  to  the  Romans. 

Now  after  having  preached  the  Gospel  and  estab- 
lished churches  among  the  Jews,  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans — the  three  great  civilized  nations  of  the  time 
— he  comes  to  the  end  of  his  great  life.  He  is  able  to 
write:  "I  have  fought  the  good  fight.  The  Lord  will 
deliver  me  from  every  evil  work,  and  will  save  me 
unto  His  heavenly  kingdom;  to  whom  be  glory  for 
ever  and  ever.     Amen.     Grace  be  with  you." 

H.     CHRISTIAN    LITERATURE 

The  literary  productions  of  the  Christians  of  the  first 
century  were  not  numerous  or  extensive.  Jesus  Him- 
self wrote  nothing,  and  the  Apostles  were  not  men  of 
literary  training.  They  used  writing  as  a  means  of 
preserving  the  memory  of  the  deeds,  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  the  Master,  and  of  elaborating  and 
applying  the  principles  that  He  taught.  When 
churches  were  established,  and  the  problems  of  church 
life  with  all  their  perplexities  began  to  arise  the 
demand  for  instruction  and  encouragement  became  an 


56       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

urgent  necessity.  The  Apostles  were  often  far  away 
when  they  were  most  needed.  They  could  only  reach 
the  churches  by  means  of  letters.  Most  of  these  let- 
ters were  written  to  meet  some  particular  emergency. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  for  instance,  was  called 
out  by  the  judaizing  teachers  in  the  churches  of 
Galatia.  But  while  the  letter  met  some  specific  case 
or  cases  it  usually  contained  fundamental  doctrinal 
expositions  which  would  hold  for  all  coming  time. 
So  the  Gospel  of  John  was  inspired  to  meet  the  gnostic 
tendencies  of  Cerinthus  of  Ephesus  (Irenaeus).  But 
as  John  had  known  the  Lord  more  intimately  than  any 
other  man  this  Gospel  is  an  indispensable  supplement 
to  the  synoptics.  Thus  there  grew  up  in  this  early 
century,  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  the  Acts  and  the 
Apocalypse  which  made  up  the  inspired  writings  to  be 
later  embodied  in  the  New  Testament  Canon.  These 
writers  little  understood  that  their  writings  were  to  be 
preserved  in  a  book  which  should  influence  the  think- 
ing and  guide  the  devotions  of  all  succeeding  ages. 
And  yet  it  was  so. 

I.     THE    PERSECUTIONS* 

But  the  new  kingdom  was  to  make  its  way  only  in 
the  face  of  the  fiercest  opposition.  Its  doctrines 
opposed  both  the  trend  of  custom  and  the  strongest 
natural  tendencies  in  the  human  heart.  These  doc- 
trines have  never  been  agreeable  to  human  nature 
simply  as  such,  nor  can  they  ever  be.  This  will  be 
seen  the  moment  we  look  at  the  facts. 

*  Since  the  causes  of  the  persecutions  are  nearly  all  found  in 
the  first  century,  and  since  the  subject  is  best  discussed  without 
divisions,  we  discard  our  temporal  divisions  in  this  case. 


The  Apostolic  Age  57 

The  persecutions  were  both  Jewish  and  heathen. 
We  may  take  them  up  in  their  order,  noticing  first: 

The  Perseaitio?is  by  the  Jews 

The  Jews  had  secured  the  crucifixion  of  the  Lord. 
It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  His  followers,  whose 
deliberate  and  persistent  purpose  it  was  to  disseminate 
His  doctrines  in  all  the  earth,  should  escape. 

Specifically,  then,  what  were  the  principal  causes  of 
this  persecution? 

They  may  be  briefly  given  as  follows:  Judaism  had 
gone  to  seed  in  Pharisaism.  Pharisaism  was  a  service 
of  formal  and  legal  righteousness  from  which  the 
spirit  had  long  since  taken  its  flight.  Its  bulky  and 
complicated  system  of  laws  was  constantly  receiving 
additions,  and  their  observance  had  become  unbear- 
able— even  impossible.  Here  then  was  a  seed-plot  of 
hypocrisy  which  matured  rapidly  and  bore  abundant 
fruit. 

Moreover,  between  Pharisaism  and  heathenism 
there  was  a  great  gulf  fixed.  The  Pharisees  were 
haughty  and  exclusive,  looking  with  supreme  disdain 
upon  "publicans  and  sinners." 

Pharisaism,  too,  was  looking  for  a  temporal  king- 
dom of  Judah,  which  should  expel  the  hated  Roman 
and  rule  the  world. 

Now  Christianity  was  the  radical  antithesis  of  all 
this.  It  meant  the  fulfillment  of  the  law  and  there- 
fore freedom  from  the  law.  It  meant  also  a  spiritual 
kingdom,  a  kingdom  not  of  this  world,  a  kingdom  of 
Heaven.  Again,  what  was,  if  possible,  the  most 
shocking  of  all,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  were  to  be 
citizens  of  this  kingdom.  The  kingdom  was  to  be  uni- 
versal. 


58       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  result  of  this  deeply-seated  antagonism  was  the 
persecution  of  the  weaker  side.  It  is  seen  in  the 
martyrdom  of  Stephen,  and  the  beheading  of  James, 
the  brother  of  John, 

But  an  unexpected  result  was  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity through  the  Christians  who  fled  from  Jerusalem, 
and  through  the  conversion  of  Paul  who  became  the 
Apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 

77ic  Perse ciitiom  by  Heathenism 

The  causes  of  these  persecutions  are  found  in  the 
essential  differences  between  Christianity  and  pagan- 
ism. These  differences  arose  in  the  consideration  of 
such  subjects  as: 

1st.  The  highest  good.  The  pagan  said  it  was  the 
state.  The  state  was  the  end  of  life.  Since  the 
emperor  was  the  incarnation  of  the  idea  of  the  state  he 
must  be  worshiped. 

The  Christian  was  loyal  to  the  state,  but  to  him  the 
kingdom  of  God  was  the  highest  good.  But  the  king- 
dom of  God  is  not  chiefly  of  this  world.  Therefore  he 
could  not  worship  the  emperor. 

2d.   As  to  the  duration  of  the  Roman  state. 

The  pagan  said  it  was  eternal.  The  Christian  said  it 
was  temporal. 

3d.  The  universal  claims  and  uncompromising  atti- 
tude of  Christianity  in  respect  to  other  religions. 

It  had  come  to  destroy  them  all  as  religions.  Its 
promoters  in  their  zeal  and  their  suffering  were  per- 
haps too  unwilling  to  recognize  any  elements  of  worth 
in  these  religions. 

4th.  Christianity  smote  the  aristocratic  proclivities 
of  heathenism. 

Its  God  was  no  respecter  of  persons.     All  men  were 


The  Apostolic  Age  59 

of  one  blood  for  "we  are  His  offspring."  According 
to  the  new  teaching  the  slave  might  equal  or  even  sur- 
pass in  worth  the  Eupatrid  with  his  long  line  of  illus- 
trious ancestors  running  back  even  to  a  god. 

5th.  Christianity  taught  the  forgiveness  of  ene- 
mies. 

But  blood  revenge  was  an  imperative  duty  for  the 
clansman,  and  the  "resentment  of  injuries  a  sacred 
obligation."  How  then  could  he  forgive  his  enemies 
and  pray  for  those  who  despitefuUy  used  him? 

6th.  Christianity  recognized  and  emphasized  the 
infinite  worth  of  the  individual  human  soul. 

This  had  never  been  done  before  and  the  pagan 
could  not  understand  it. 

7th.  An  extremely  practical  objection  to  Christianity 
came  from  the  commercial  point  of  view.  There  were 
many  classes  whose  entire  livelihood  depended  upon 
the  social  and  religious  customs  of  heathenism.  "The 
makers  of  silver  shrines  at  Ephesus,  who  raised  the 
riot  to  murder  St.  Paul,  were  representatives  of  a 
class.  All  idol-makers,  flower-sellers,  purveyors  of 
victims,  architects  of  temples,  sculptors,  painters, 
decorators,  oracle-mongers,  soothsayers,  augurs, 
astrologers,  casters  of  horoscopes,  all  charioteers, 
gladiators,  boxers,  athletes,  actors,  players  in  mimes, 
singers,  dancers,  tavern-keepers — all  the  vast  throng 
of  the  degraded  and  the  reprobates  who  lived  by  min- 
istering to  guilty  pleasures — were  arrayed  in  arms 
against  those  whose  victory  would  be  their  ruin" 
(Farrar:  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Vol.  I.,  p.  21). 

Evidently,  then,  the  new  religion  had  come  to 
bring  not  peace  but  a  sword,  and  the  war  that  was 
begun  at  that  time  has  gone  on  from  that  day  to  this 
without  parley  and  without  truce. 


60       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

These  causes  were  followed  by  correspondinj^  results. 
The  Christians  were  regarded  as  enemies  of  the  state; 
they  were  branded  as  atheists;  they  were  stigmatized 
as  haters  of  the  whole  human  race;  in  the  eyes  of  the 
law  they  deserved  torture  and  death;  and  Pliny  spoke 
of  Christianity  as  a  "distorted  and  extravagant  super- 
stition, aggravated  by  contumacy  and  inflexible  obsti- 
nacy." 

How  completely  the  misrepresentations  of  the 
Christians  had  misled  the  best  emperors  and  the  best 
writers  of  the  times  is  seen  in  the  oft-quoted  passage 
of  Tacitus  in  which  he  speaks  thus:  "Men  whom  the 
common  people  called  Christians;  men  hated  for  their 
enormities.  .  .  .  After  the  condemnation  of  Christ  by 
Pontius  Pilate,  the  deadly  superstition,  after  having 
been  repressed  for  a  time,  was  again  breaking  out,  not 
only  throughout  Judea,  where  the  curse  originated,  but 
even  throughout  the  city,  which  is  the  common  sewer 
and  metropolis  of  all  things  repulsive  or  shameful" 
{A?in.  15:44)- 

The  persecutions  lasted  in  fits  and  starts  for  almost 
three  centuries.  But  Christianity  steadily  gained 
influence,  although  at  a  fearful  expenditure  of  suffer- 
ing and  blood.  At  last  in  310  Galerius  issued  an  edict 
of  general  toleration.  This  was  followed  by  another, 
in  312,  from  Constantine  at  Rome  for  the  western 
empire.  Again,  Constantine  in  connection  with  his 
fellow-emperor,  Licinius,  reissued  it  at  Milan  in  313.* 
In  324  Constantine  became  sole  ruler,  and  the  dim  but 
growing  light  of  toleration  "brightened  into  the  settled 
day." 


*For  the    edict,   .see   Eusebius :    Church    History,     Bk.    V., 
Chap.  5. 


The  Apostolic  Age  61 

J.     THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  JERUSALEM,    'JO  A.D. 

The  Jews  had  always  been  restive  under  Roman  rule 
— and  with  just  cause.  The  majority  of  the  Roman 
procurators  had  been  tyrannical,  or  dishonest,  or 
unwise  in  their  management.  There  arose,  accordingly, 
an  extreme  party  of  zealots  whose  opposition  to  Rome 
was  steady  and  usually  extreme.  Several  uprisings 
had  been  quelled  with  great  cruelty,  as  in  Caesarea  in 
66  where  twenty  thousand  Jews  were  slaughtered. 

Nero  decided  to  subjugate  the  Jews  and  deputed 
Vespasian  for  the  task.  It  was  left,  however,  for 
Vespasian's  son,  Titus,  to  accomplish  the  work,  after 
his  father  had  become  emperor. 

The  fall  of  Jerusalem  is  one  of  the  most  appalling 
events  in  all  history,  but  the  results  were  helpful  to 
the  progress  of  Christianity. 

Among  these  results  are  to  be  mentioned:  The 
breaking  up  of  the  chief  center  of  Jewish  power,  and 
consequently  Jewish  persecution  of  Christians;  and  a 
fulfillment  of  our  Lord's  prophecies  as  recorded  in 
Matthew  and  Luke  (see  Matt.  21:43,  23:  37-39;  Luke 
21 :  20-28) ;  and  it  led  the  Romans  to  distinguish  sharply 
between  the  Jews  and  the  Christians. 

The  first  century  was  one  of  intense  activity.  It  was 
the  period  of  the  first  shock  of  the  application  of  new 
and  radical  principles — principles  that  called  for  a 
complete  reversal  of  ideas  and  conduct  in  many 
regions  of  society.  These  principles  were  not  only 
revolutionary,  but  they  asserted  themselves  with  tre- 
mendous persistency  and  power. 


CHAPTER    II 

FROM     THE    APOSTOLIC     AGE     TO 
CONSTANTINE 

(100-313) 

A.    Politics  and  Society 

In  the  preceding  period  we  saw  what,  on  the  whole, 
indicated  that  the  new  empire  was  already  on  the  road 
to  dissolution.  In  this  period  the  same  tendencies 
are  to  be  observed.  But  yet,  nearly  all  the  second 
century  would  seem  to  indicate  the  contrary,  for  its 
emperors  were  the  great  Antonines  known  in  history 
as  the  Five  Good  Emperors.  Beginning  with  Nerva 
in  96  in  continuous  succession  to  the  death  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  in  180,  the  throne  was  occupied  by  statesmen, 
warriors,  and  philosophers  of  large  genius  and  lofty 
aims,  and  we  have  one  of  the  golden  ages  of  history. 
But  it  is  a  mark  of  disease  now  and  then  to  relax  its 
grip,  and  apparently  to  cease  its  ravages,  only  later  on 
to  take  a  more  vigorous  and  deadly  hold.  So  after 
Domitian  came  the  happy  age  of  the  Antonines  only 
to  be  followed  by  a  period  of  anarchy  and  disorder 
which  should  carry  the  empire  through  another  long 
stage  in  the  process  of  decay.  This  stage  was  intro- 
duced by  Commodus,  the  dissolute  son  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  In  all  essential  respects  Commodus  was 
unlike  his  illustrious  father.  Instead  of  finding  his 
chief  delight  in  problems  of  statecraft  and  philosophy 
he  found  it  rather  among  the  gladiators  and  in  the 
midnight  orgies.      He  was  unbridled  in  his  anger,  and 

62 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      63 

reckless  in  condemning  to  death  those  who  fell  under 
his  suspicion.      He  was  finally  assassinated  in  192. 

As  w$  pass  on  through  the  third  century  and  meet 
the  wickedness  of  such  emperors  as  Caracalla  and 
Elagabalus,  and  see  the  empire  become  an  elaborate 
military  monarchy,  resting  for  its  authority  upon  the 
caprice  of  coarse  and  brutal  soldiers;  as  we  sometimes 
see  several  emperors  fighting  for  the  supremacy;  as 
we  see  sensuality  increasing  in  society,  and  manly 
feeling  decaying,  and  the  marriage  tie  disregarded,  and 
wealth  and  the  grosser  pleasures  becoming  the  ruling 
motives,  we  are  impressed  that  the  end  is  at  hand. 

But  not  yet.  It  is  true  that  the  political  and  social 
structure  has  weakened  at  almost  every  point;  and  that 
the  barbarians  are  breaking  through  the  northern 
frontiers;  and  the  Persians  are  invading  the  east.  But 
these  external  enemies  are  temporarily  beaten  back, 
and  there  is  still  hope  if  some  statesman  of  "profound 
and  subtle  genius"  can  come  to  the  rescue.  Such  a 
man  was  Diocletian,  284-305. 

Now  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  empire  had 
incorporated  many  forms  of  government;  many  differ- 
ent races,  speaking  as  many  different  languages,  and 
following  as  many  different  customs;  many  types  of 
civilization;  and  many  kinds  of  barbarism.  More- 
over, in  this  vast  territory  there  were  numerous 
geographical  features  which  later  on  were  to  make 
natural  and  scientific  boundaries  of  states.  Wonders 
had  been  worked  in  the  assimilation  of  this  hetero- 
geneous mass,  and  all  citizens  in  the  provinces,  from 
Britain  in  the  extreme  west  to  the  far  east,  called 
themselves  Romans. 

Nevertheless,  in  the  very  nature  of  the  case  this 
assimilation  could  not  be  perfect.     Despite  all  power- 


64       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ful  influences  to  the  contrary,  original  types  would 
reassert  themselves.  Besides,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
frontiers  are  exposed  at  numerous  points.  The  facts 
indicate  clearly  that  such  a  mass  of  differing  human 
beings  cannot  be  governed  from  one  center  and  by  one 
emperor.  Diocletian  is  the  child  of  his  age.  The 
spirit  of  the  time  will  find  expression  in  the  new 
arrangement  he  is  to  establish.  There  shall  be  two 
emperors.  Each  one  shall  be  called  Augustus.  There 
shall  be  two  subordinates  called  Caesars.  The  Caesars 
shall  be  located — one  at  York  in  Britain,  the  other  at 
Trier  in  Gaul.  Maximian,  one  of  the  Augusti,  shall 
have  his  court  at  Milan,  while  Diocletian,  the  other 
Augustus,  and  the  real  ruler  of  all,  shall  have  his  court 
at  Nicomedia.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  by 
this  arrangement  the  frontiers  from  Britain  to  Asia 
Minor  are  guarded.  Thus  not  only  was  the  coming 
dismemberment  postponed,  but  most  important  ideas 
within  the  body  could  be  brought  to  greater  maturity, 
and  all  together  could  be  preserved  until  the  times 
should  be  full  for  the  mingling  of  Greek,  Roman  and 
Jewish  elements  with  the  vigorous  barbarian  elements 
of  the  north,  and  for  the  foundations  of  modern  society 
to  be  laid.  This  was  to  come  through  the  barbarian 
invasions. 

Most  important,  perhaps,  of  these  later  develop- 
ments is  that  of  the  Roman  law.  We  have  observed 
that  the  Romans  were  pre-eminently  a  legal  people. 
This  was  true  in  the  time  of  the  commonwealth  and  it 
continued  to  be  true  in  the  empire.  The  sources  of 
the  Roman  law  were  the  statutes  and  customs  and 
interpretations  of  the  courts.  But  until  the  beginning 
of  our  period  there  had  been  no  attempt  at  codifica- 
tion.    Owing  to  the  great  multiplication  of  these  laws 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      65 

there  arose  great  contradiction  and  confusion.  The 
emperors  and  lawyers  were  accordingly  compelled  to 
seek  for  general  principles  by  which  all  that  was  valu- 
able in  this  great  mass  could  be  systematized,  and  all 
that  was  superfluous  and  contradictory  could  be  elimi- 
nated. The  ethics  of  Stoicism  which  was  the  dominant 
philosophy  of  the  time  exercised  a  controlling  influ- 
ence in  this  undertaking.  This  pioneer  work  was  the 
beginning  of  the  process  that  four  hundred  years  later 
evolved  into  the  great  code  of  Justinian.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Roman  law  on  all  succeeding  ages  has 
been  incalculable.* 

B.  The  Development  of  Christianity 
Whilst  momentous  changes  have  been  going  on  in 
the  political  and  social  life  of  the  empire,  Christianity 
has  been  rapidly  developing  its  various  lines  of 
activity.  It  spreads  like  leaven  from  its  small  and 
despised  beginnings  in  Palestine  through  the  whole 
imperial  organism;  it  advances  towards  centralization; 
it  justifies  itself  with  facts  and  arguments,  thus  push- 
ing back  its  enemies,  and  creating  a  literature,  and 
coming  nearer  to  the  point  at  which  it  will  be  obliged 
to  make  a  scientific  statement  of  its  great  leading  doc- 
trines. 

The  principle  phases  of  this  activity  are  seen  in: 

A.     CHURCH    EXTENSION 
LITERATURE 
Barnes:   Two  Thousand  Years  of  Missions  before  Carey » 
Smith :  Short  History  of  Christiaft  Missions. 
Scudder:  Nineteen  Ce?ituries  of  Missions. 
Clarke :  A  Study  of  Christian  Missions. 

*See   Hadley :  Introduction   to  Roman  Law.     Morey :  Out' 
lines  of  Roman  Law. 


6(j       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Wc  have  already  mentioned  the  essentially  mission- 
ary character  of  Christianity.  We  have  seen  how  the 
Apostles  made  it  their  greatest  purpose  to  establish 
churches  not  only  among  the  Jews,  but  also  among  the 
Gentiles;  how  the  idea  was  universal.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting fact  that  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  period  the 
Christians  were  more  widely  diffused  than  numerous. 
But  every  Christian  created  an  atmosphere  wherever 
he  went;  and  this  diffusion  meant  the  establishment 
of  many  centers.  From  these  centers  so  full  of  life 
and  light  the  good  news,  despite  the  fires  of  persecu- 
tion, spread  steadily  and  sometimes  rapidly  among  the 
heathen  whose  conversion  was  the  chief  concern  of 
this  period. 

By  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  Gospel  had 
been  introduced  into  Edessa  in  Mesopotamia  and  into 
Persia,  Media,  Parthia,  and  Bactria. 

In  the  last  quarter  of  the  same  century,  Alexandria 
in  Egypt  was  a  flourishing  missionary  center,  ani- 
mated by  Pantaenus  and  his  school  of  catechumens. 
He  was  followed  by  Clement  and  Origen.  Perhaps 
Clement's  Exhortatioii  to  the  Hcatheii  was  read  before 
the  students  of  this  school. 

From  Asia  Minor  as  a  center,  churches  were  founded 
at  Lyons  and  Vienne  in  southern  Gaul  —  Irenaeus  was 
bishop  of  Lyons.  Here  he  wrote  his  treatise,  Agai?ist 
Heresies. 

It  seems  certain  that  early  in  the  third  century 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  Britain.  By  whom 
it  is  impossible  to  say.  For  a  long  time  it  maintained 
a  precarious  existence,  exercising  but  little  influence 
upon  the  Celtic  peoples  of  the  island.  Thus  into  all 
parts  of  imperial  Rome  the  disciples  of  the  Nazarene 
had  found  their  way  and  were  destined  to  prevail. 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  C onstantine      67 

B.     THE    GROWTH    OF    CENTRALIZATION 

The  motives  to  strong  ecclesiastical  organization  in 
the  second  and  third  centuries  were  very  powerful. 
These  motives  were  of  several  kinds.  Successfully  to 
withstand  the  persecutions,  and,  indeed,  to  make  large 
progress  in  their  very  face  required  the  leadership  of 
genius.  Within  the  body  of  the  church  itself  the  most 
intricate  problems  were  continually  presenting  them- 
selves. In  the  first  place  these  problems  concerned 
the  practical  Christian  life  which,  in  emerging  from 
heathenism,  needed  intelligent  and  spiritual  direction. 
This  life  was  also  ever  beset  with  many  temptations  to 
which  it  often  yielded,  bringing  disgrace  and  shame  on 
the  whole  body.  In  the  second  place  these  problems 
had  to  do  with  the  basal  doctrines  taught  by  Jesus  and 
elaborated  by  the  Apostles.  To  preserve  these  doc- 
trines in  their  purity  and  at  the  same  time  to  make 
them  practically  effective  in  a  world  not  without  strik- 
ing merits  of  its  own  required  ability  of  the  highest 
order. 

Now  if  the  great  lines  of  spiritual  force  originating 
in  the  myriads  of  Christian  hearts  were  to  be  conserved 
and  utilized;  if  they  were  not  in  large  measure  to  be 
dissipated  and  lost  they  must  be  brought  into  unison. 
This  could  be  done  only  through  organization.  And, 
fortunately  for  the  world,  in  times  of  extreme  crisis 
popular  intuition  usually  leads  to  the  choice  of  the 
wisest  generalship.  But  a  general  or  a  president  or  a 
teacher  who  comes  to  the  front  in  an  emergency  tends 
to  become  a  permanent  officer.  The  people,  in  their 
gratitude  and  inexperience,  not  only  offer  no  opposi- 
tion, but  usually  fall  into  line  and  follow;  and  so  in 
such  a  favorable  environment  centralization  begins 
and  grows. 


68       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

But  there  were  not  wanting  impressive  historical 
models  to  influence  the  early  builders  of  church  polity. 
There  was  the  system  of  the  Roman  religion  still 
retaining  much  of  its  vitality;  there  were  the  abiding 
influences  of  the  Jewish  economy  whose  truest  spirit 
had  much  in  common  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity; 
and  most  influential  of  all  these  there  was  the  impos- 
ing structure  of  imperial  Rome  right  before  their  eyes 
That  these  models  contributed  a  large  share  to  the  sub- 
sequent developments  cannot  be  doubted. 

As  emergencies  arose  they  were  too  serious  for  the 
play  of  small  politics,  and  as  if  by  instinct  the  most 
efficient  members  of  the  communities  were  put  to  the 
front.  The  very  ablest  became  the  leader  among  his 
equals,  and  gradually  combined  several  functions  in 
himself,  and  if  his  ability  sustained  him,  he  became  the 
chief  source  of  power  and  influence  in  the  community. 
The  stronger  communities  established  branches  which 
they,  of  course,  controlled;  the  weaker  independent 
communities  by  the  very  force  of  circumstances  tended 
to  come  more  and  more  under  the  control  of  the 
stronger.  Towns  became  centers  varying  in  their 
influence  according  to  their  size,  the  degree  of  their 
culture,  their  historical  position,  and  their  geograph- 
ical situation.  Questions  too  difificult  or  of  too  general 
interest  to  be  settled  by  local  communities  were  carried 
up  to  synods  composed  of  representatives  of  all  the 
communities,  and  usually  the  ablest  man  presided  at 
the  sessions  of  the  synod.  In  the  course  of  this 
process  gradually  and  naturally  each  member  seemed 
to  fall  into  his  proper  place.  The  clergy  and  the  laity 
are  separated,  and  ecclesiastical  orders  arise. 

And  so,  when  the  tendency  became  marked,  power 
rapidly   became    centralized    in    a   few   bishops    who 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      69 

became  archbishops  or  metropolitans  of  principalities 
such  as  Antioch,  Alexandria  and  Rome. 

That  the  Roman  church  should  occupy  a  very 
exalted  position  among  the  other  churches  was  to  be 
expected.  The  wonderful  history  of  the  city;  the 
great  size  of  the  church;  the  high  character  and  wide 
influence  of  its  members;  its  far-reaching  missionary 
activity;  its  liberality;  the  fact  that  after  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  Peter  began  to  be  thought  the 
founder  and  first  bishop  of  the  church — all  these  causes 
combined  to  give  the  church  at  Rome,  as  we  shall  see, 
the  central  and  controlling  influence  over  all  Christen- 
dom. Thus  while  we  find  no  satisfactory  evidence  of  a 
hierarchy  at  the  founding  of  the  church  we  do  find  a 
gradual  development  leading  to  a  very  advanced 
hierarchy  at  the  opening  of  the  fourth  century. 

C.     MONTANISM 

As  Christianity  became  organized  in  its  constitution 
it  became  orderly  in  its  worship.  The  tendency  was 
irresistible  to  bring  everything  under  rule — either  writ- 
ten or  understood.  A  spirit  was  soon  begotten  that 
was  shocked  at  everything  that  was  irregular  or  spon- 
taneous. Enthusiasm  was  dampened  and  chilled. 
Formalism  began  to  grow.  Now  there  will  always  be 
certain  natures  that  will  be  restive  under  such  restraints. 
They  will  feel  that  spirituality  has  departed  from  wor- 
ship that  is  conducted  in  this  way,  and  at  last  the  spirit 
of  revolt  will  come  to  a  head  in  some  leader  who  will 
gather  about  himself  all  the  discontented  elements. 
This  is  an  explanation  of  Montanism. 

Montanus  was  a  Mysian  who  arose  about  145  and 
soon  had  a  large  following.  A  revolt  never  stops  at 
moderation    and    accordingly    Montanus    had     some 


70       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

extreme  views.  These  extreme  views  were  seized 
upon  by  his  enemies  and  magnified  out  of  all  due  pro- 
portion— until  the  most  horrifying  reports  were  in 
circulation  about  him  and  his  disciples. 

Montanism  spread  through  Phrygia  and  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  through  Italy.  But  it  achieved  its 
greatest  success  in  Africa  where  it  was  so  fortunate  as 
to  win  the  great  Tertullian  who  has  been  its  efficient 
spokesman  to  succeeding  ages. 

Its  principal  influence  was  in  the  second  and  third 
centuries.  By  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  it  had 
ceased  to  exist. 

D.     CHURCH    DISCIPLINE 

Despite  the  best  efforts  that  could  be  put  forth  in 
teaching  and  in  organization  the  baser  human  nature 
continually  reasserted  itself,  and  many  who  had  taken 
the  vows  of  Christianity  fell  away.  Some  yielded  to 
the  grosser  vices,  others  gave  way  only  in  the  presence 
of  imminent  peril  of  life,  or  to  physical  torture,  in  the 
persecutions.  Discipline  therefore  became  necessary 
at  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of  the  church. 
That  this  would  be  so  was  foreseen  by  our  Lord  Him- 
self when,  for  instance.  He  gave  specific  directions  as  to 
the  method  of  procedure  in  Matt.  i8:   i6,  17. 

It  had  been  customary  among  the  Jews  to  excom- 
municate those  who  had  been  guilty  of  serious  offenses. 
This  custom  was  adopted  by  the  Christians.  Those 
who  had  been  excommunicated  or  excluded  could  be 
restored  to  fellowship  through  penance  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  absolution.  Penance  was  usually  public, 
extending  over  years  and  consisted  of  fasting,  prayers, 
and  entreaties  that  the  clergy  and  the  faithful  might 
intercede  for  the  penitent.     The  scale  was  graduated 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      71 

according  to  the  nature  of  the  offense  which  had 
brought  disgrace  upon  the  church. 

An  unfortunate  distinction  between  "venial"  and 
"mortal"  sins  begins  to  be  made,  and  in  dealing  with 
cases  of  "mortal"  sin  differences  arose  which  led  to 
numerous  schisms.  The  most  important  of  these  were: 
the  schism  of  Felicissimus  of  Carthage;  the  Novatian 
schism;  and  the  Donatist  schism,  which  arose  at  the 
opening  of  the  next  period. 

The  Donatists,  in  addition  to  their  disciplinary- 
rigor,  unduly  exalted  martyrdom  so  that  many  Chris- 
tians sought  it  from  purely  fanatical  motives. 

E.  DOCTRINAL  DEVELOPMENTS  AND  CONTROVERSIES 

Progress  in  Doctrine 

The  advance  in  doctrinal  ideas  on  fundamental  ques- 
tions is  considerable.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  along 
with  the  classification  of  central  principles  there 
appear  also  the  beginnings  of  numerous  errors  which 
are  to  continue  their  growth  until  they  almost  destroy 
the  spirituality  of  the  church,  and  they  are  only  to  be 
checked   by  the  Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Among  these  developments  our  first  interest  is  in 
the  doctrine  of  God,  since  this  is  basal  to  all  the  rest. 
It  was  generally  believed  that  the  existence  of  God  is 
established  by  an  intuition  which  vaguely  exists  in 
every  human  mind.  This  intuition  is  verified  and 
clarified  by  experience  which  is  seen  in  the  adaptation 
of  means  to  ends.  God  is  the  primal  and  only  orig- 
inal essence,  and  by  Him  the  universe  was  created  out 
of  nothing.  He  exercises  general  and  particular 
providence  over  all  the  created  universe,  material  and 
spiritual. 

Our  second  interest  is  in  the  doctrine  of  man.     God 


72       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

created  man  in  His  own  image,  in  the  image  of  God 
created  He  him.  With  the  exception  of  Tertullian, 
who  was  a  traducianist,  it  was  generally  believed  that 
the  soul  was  created  and  that  it  was  incorporeal.  Not- 
withstanding the  general  and  special  providence  of 
God  the  freedom  of  the  will  was  never  questioned,  and 
in  some  cases  extreme  views  of  freedom  were  held. 
There  were  various  views  as  to  the  source  of  immor- 
tality but  that  it  is  a  fact  all  agree.  Through  the  free 
choice  of  Adam  the  human  race  fell  and  sin  became  a 
universal  fact;  and  all  men  had  at  least  a  bias  towards 
sin.  This  bent  is  emphasized  more  or  less  strongly 
by  the  different  Church  Fathers.  The  need  of  a  Saviour 
was  admitted  by  all. 

Our  third  interest  is  in  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 
Although  the  Trinitarian  controversy  belongs  to  the 
next  period  it  is  foreshadowed  here.  The  great  doc- 
trines of  pre-existence,  exaltation,  and  incarnation  are 
clearly  indicated.  Distinctions  in  the  Godhead  were 
strongly  maintained  and  strongly  opposed.  Out  of 
the  opposition  arose  the  different  forms  of  Mon- 
archianism  of  which  Sabellius  was  the  chief  represent- 
ative. The  Holy  Spirit  was  regarded  as  a  distinct 
personality. 

The  later  Christological  discussions  are  hardly  antic- 
ipated here,  but  the  sinlessness  and  supernatural 
birth  of  the  Lord  are  not  questioned. 

The  great  fact  is  the  mediatorial  and  redeeming 
work  of  Christ  which  came  through  His  suffering  and 
death.  Salvation  comes  through  faith  in  Him  and 
obedience  to  His  will. 

"Yet  we  have  to  record  an  early  and  increasing 
departure  from  the  conception  of  the  life-giving  faith 
which    is    presented    by   the   Apostle    Paul,    and    the 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to   Constantine      73 

gradual  incoming  of  a  more  legal  spirit.  This  appears 
in  the  distinction  between  the  criminality  of  sins 
before  and  after  baptism;  the  idea  of  satisfaction  to  be 
rendered  by  the  offender,  if  a  communicant;  the 
attaching  of  merit  to  good  works,  such  as  alms-giving; 
the  notion  of  works  of  supererogation,  when  not  only 
the  comma7ids  of  the  Gospel  are  obeyed,  but  recom- 
mendations, among  which  virginity  was  reckoned,  are 
complied  with;  and,  finally,  in  a  tendency  to  convert 
faith  into  a  credence  given  to  facts  and  doctrines, 
instead  of  a  self-surrender  to  God  and  to  Christ" 
(Fisher:  H,  C.  C,  p.  83). 

We  learn,  too,  from  Cyprian  and  others  that  there  is 
no  salvation  beyond  the  pale  of  the  visible  church. 
Baptism  becomes  identical  with  regeneration,  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  begins  to  be  considered  as  "having  an 
efficacious  influence  on  the  body  and  spirit  of  the 
recipient."      Millennial  ideas  are  widespread. 

A  fourth  point  of  general  interest  is  the  doctrine  of 
angels  and  demons.  That  the  universe  was  peopled 
with  "angelic  spirits"  was  the  common  belief.  They 
were  God's  messengers;  they  were  the  guardians  of 
nations  and  of  individuals.  There  were  also  evil 
spirits,  the  ministers  of  Satan,  and  to  their  agency  all 
sorts  of  physical  and  moral  evils  were  ascribed. 

Doctrinal  Controversies 

The  exhortation  had  been  given  earnestly  to  contend 
for  the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints  (Jude  3). 
This  was  a  prophecy,  for  the  greatest  difficulties  of  the 
early  church  were  by  no  means  confined  to  the  perse- 
cutions. Indeed,  perils  far  more  serious  arose  par- 
tially within  its  own  body.  To  thoughtful  and 
truth-seeking  Jews  and  heathens  there  was  very  much 


74       .4  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

in  the  life  and  teachings  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles,  as 
also  in  the  lives  of  the  Christians,  that  satisfied  their 
longings.  Many  of  them  went  over  to  Christianity, 
but  carried  with  them  much  of  their  former  doctrine. 
Others  proposed  to  hold  fast  the  essential  principles 
of  their  own  religious  and  philosophical  systems,  but 
to  incorporate  such  Christian  elements  as  they  could 
assimilate.  Thus  there  originated  between  Chris- 
tianity on  one  side  and  Judaism  and  paganism  on  two 
other  sides  a  common  ground.  But  the  systems  them- 
selves remained  radically  different.  The  controversies 
that  arose  from  this  syncretistic  situation  stirred  the 
church  tc  its  profoundest  depths  and  called  forth  some 
of  the  masterpieces  of  early  Christian  literature. 

The  sources  of  these  dangerous  errors  were:  linger- 
ing Judaism,  but  primarily  and  most  important  of  all, 
Greek  speculation,  and  secondarily  various  forms  of 
oriental  mysticism. 

These  doctrinal  aberrations  are  classified  as  follows: 

a.  Ebio7iism 

Any  system  that  has  been  long  established  and  that 
has  been  an  essential  stage  in  the  world's  progress  is  sure 
to  have  great  tenacity  of  life.  Its  central  form  maybe 
expected  to  reappear  again  and  again,  and  in  different 
form,  years  after  the  mission  of  the  system  has  been 
fulfilled  and  the  system  itself  has  decayed.  It  was  so  in 
the  case  of  Judaism.  Many  of  the  Jews  could  not  give 
up  the  idea  that  the  law  of  Moses  was  equal  to  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ  as  a  source  of  spiritual  power.  They 
were  thus  led  to  limit  His  divinity  and  His  omnipo- 
tence, while  showing  high  regard  for  His  conspicuous 
merits  and  the  great  dignity  of  His  office.  We 
accordingly     have      several     sects     placing     varying 


From  the  Apostolic  Age   to  Constantine      75 

emphasis  upon  the  law  of  Moses  which  is  the  common 
bond  uniting  them  all.  The  principal  ones  of  these 
sects  are  the  Elkesites,  the  Nazarenes,  and  the 
Ebionites. 

As  we  have  already  seen  the  Ebionites  refused  to 
give  up  the  Old  Testament  ceremonial  observances. 
They  have  been  divided  into: 

I.  The  Moderate  Ebionites 

They  are  characterized  by  a  looseness  of  conception. 
While  they  clung  to  the  ancient  ceremonies  they  were 
charitable  to  all  Gentile  believers. 

2.  The  Rigid  Ebionites 

They  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  Gentile  believ- 
ers. Of  the  Gospels  they  used  only  a  form  of  Mat- 
thew. In  their  doctrine  of  Christ  they  recognized  Him 
as  a  prophet,  as  a  promulgator  of  a  more  rigid  form  of 
the  law,  as  having  received  His  higher  powers  at  His 
baptism,  as  having  been  naturally  born.  They  made 
little  of  His  sufferings  and  death. 

As  Ebionism  was  already  an  obsolescent  system  its 
opposition  to  Christianity  could  not  be  very  dangerous. 

b.  Gnosticism 

/.  The  Origin  of  Gnosticism 

It  would  be  difficult  to  believe  that  the  splendid 
manifestations  of  mind  as  seen  in  the  philosophy,  the 
literature,  and  the  art  of  the  Greeks  had  bloomed  and 
matured  to  no  divinely  ordained  end;  that  they  were 
not  predestined  to  become  potent  agencies  in  the 
higher  spiritual  development  of  man.  It  would  be 
more  difficult  still  to  believe  that  the  perfect  religion 
when  it  should  come  would  ignore  all  that  earnest  and 


76      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

able  men  had  done  through  ages  of  struggle  toward  the 
light;  that  it  would  not,  in  fact,  show  the  deepest  and 
most  positive  interest  in  these  conceptions  and  utilize 
them  in  its  conquest  of  the  world.  That  Christianity 
is  hospitable  to  all  truth  in  all  ages  and  in  all  the 
activities  of  life  has  already  been  urged. 

It  is  in  a  situation  like  this  that  we  find  the  origin  of 
Gnosticism.  The  world  has  been  seeking  for  an 
explanation  of  the  antithesis  between  matter  and 
spirit;  of  the  ceaseless  conflict  between  good  and  evil; 
and  the  search  has  reached  its  acme  of  intensity  just 
now  in  the  second  century.  Christianity  has  offered 
satisfaction  through  faith  whose  results  are  seen  in 
good  works  and  pure  and  happy  lives;  but  the  world 
demands  an  explanation  through  knowledge.  Chris- 
tianity solves  the  problem  practically;  the  world  wants 
it  solved  theoretically.  Christianity  is  not  averse  to 
rational  explanation  just  as  far  as  the  intellect  can 
reach.  Whatever  has  been  worked  out  from  repre- 
sentative facts  taken  from  all  the  spheres  of  existence, 
and  according  to  logical  and  psychological  laws,  is  and 
must  ever  be  gratefully  recognized  by  Christianity  as 
an  indispensable  means  of  its  advancement.  But 
when  the  intellect  has  done  its  utmost  there  is  always 
an  infinite  region  whose  benevolence  and  rationality 
must  be  left  to  faith.  But  the  world  tends  always  to 
reject  faith  and  in  relying  exclusively  on  intellect  and 
knowledge  puts  too  great  a  strain  upon  its  thinking 
powers,  breaks  down  and  wanders  off  into  the  most 
contradictory  positions  and  vagaries. 

Now  as  we  remember  the  limitations  of  the  human 
mind,  Christian  as  well  as  pagan,  we  are  not  surprised 
that  when  it  comes  to  the  practical  application  of 
Christian  principles  to  life  in  all   its   intricate  phases 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      77 

there  should  come  a  tangle  such  as  we  find  in  Gnosti- 
cism. That  Christian  apologists,  in  their  revulsion 
from  the  horrors  of  pagan  immorality,  and  in  their 
zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  Good  News  should 
overlook  the  elements  of  worth  in  heathenism;  that 
the  more  earnest  and  better-educated  pagans,  seeing 
the  fruits  of  the  Christian  faith  should,  in  differing 
degrees,  adopt  it  and  seek  to  reduce  it  to  knowledge; 
that  many  Christians  inclined  by  nature  to  speculation 
should  be  captured  by  intellectual  or  mystical  explana- 
tions of  the  faith;  that  others  should  be  dominated  by 
an  intellectual  pride  unworthy  the  true  and  earnest 
seeker  after  truth — all  this  is  in  strictest  harmony  with 
laws  well  understood  by  every  genuine  student  of  his- 
tory. But  while  the  results  of  man's  limitations  are  so 
sadly  evident  we  have,  nevertheless,  in  Gnosticism, 
the  seething  that  finally  settles  into  the  definite  course 
that  theological  thought  is  to  pursue. 

2.   The  G?iostic  Systems 

From  the  data  given  in  the  preceding  section  we  may 
infer  that:  "Gnosticism  is  the  comprehensive  name 
used  to  embrace  a  large  number  of  widely  ramified 
sects  on  the  borderland  between  Christianity  and 
heathen  thought  which  flourished  in  the  second  cen- 
tury."* 

Gnosticism  had  its  beginnings  in  New  Testament 
times,  its  flourishing  period  was  the  second  century; 
in  the  third  it  begins  to  decline,  and  by  the  sixth  cen- 
tury scarcely  a  trace  of  it  is  to  be  found. 

Gnosticism  took  many  forms  which  cannot  be 
enumerated,  but  there  were  some  common  character- 

*See  Art.  "Gnosticism,"  in  Hasting^s'  Dzct.  Bid. 


78       A  Short  History  oi  the  Christian  Church 

istics  which  historians  have  found  in  most  of  them. 
Among  these  we  note: 

1st.  Dualism.  It  believed  in  one  supreme  God, 
dwelling  from  eternity  in  the  Pleroma,  or  fulness  of 
light,  as  eternally  opposed  to  matter  which  is  eternal 
and  is  the  Kctioma,  or  emptiness.  Matter  is  essentially 
evil. 

2d.  Emanation.  God  or  the  Supreme  Spirit  reaches 
matter  through  a  succession  of  aeons  or  emanations. 

3d.  The  Demiurge.  The  lowest  of  these  aeons  is 
the  Demiurge  who  constructs  the  universe  out  of  mat- 
ter. Spirit  thus  becomes  imprisoned  in  matter.  The 
soul  of  man  is  imprisoned  in  his  body. 

4th.  Redemption.  Christ,  the  highest  aeon,  ema- 
nated from  God,  and  liberated  man's  spirit  from  matter. 

5th.  Docetism.  Since  matter  is  evil,  and  since  the 
contact  of  spirit  with  matter  is  contamination,  Christ 
could  not  have  a  human  body.  Consequently  His 
sufferings  and  death  on  the  cross  were  only  in  appear- 
ance. 

6th.  Gnosticism  was  aristocratic.  It  claimed  a 
degree  of  enlightenment  to  which  the  vulgar  could  not 
attain. 

7th.   Gnosticism  was  generally  opposed  to  Judaism. 

It  is  generally  believed  among  the  Church  Fathers 
that  Simon  Magus,  who  was  believed  to  be  "that 
power  of  God  which  is  called  great,"  was  the  first 
Gnostic.  Cerinthus  was  a  contemporary  of  the  Apos- 
tle John,  and  made  no  end  of  trouble  among  the  saints 
at  Ephesus.  There  are  numerous  passages  in  the  New 
Testament  indicating  the  prevalence  of  Gnostic  ideas.* 

Basilides,  who  flourished  in  Alexandria  from  120- 
130,  represents  an  advance  in  theoretic  completeness 

♦See  Hastings:  Diet.  Bib.,  Art.  "Gnosticism." 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to   Constantine      79 

which  reaches  its  highest  point  in  Valentinus,  an  Alex- 
andrian, who  flourished  in  Rome  about  140-167. 
From  him  we  get  most  of  our  impressions  of  Gnosticism. 
His  account  of  the  creation,  the  structure,  and  the  de- 
velopment, of  the  universe  is,  to  say  the  least,  extremely 
fascinating.  Its  main  features  have  been  concisely 
stated  as  follows:  "The  relation  between  the  Absolute 
Being  and  the  universe  is  explained  by  the  emanation 
from  the  Absolute  of  aeons  in  pairs,  male  and  female. 
These  aeons  by  marriage  (syzygy)  produce  other  aeons 
until  thirty  aeons  are  produced,  which  reside  within 
the  Pleroma.  The  last  female  aeon,  Sophia  (wisdom), 
impelled  by  a  desire  for  knowledge,  comes  without  the 
Pleroma.  She  calls  upon  the  Christ  who  rescues  her. 
There  is  produced  another  offspring,  the  material  uni- 
verse. By  the  restoration  of  Sophia  the  animal  uni- 
verse is  produced;  by  her  joy  on  being  restored  is 
further  produced  the  spiritual  universe.  From  the 
animal  substance  is  created  the  Demiurge,  who  creates 
the  world."* 

Marcion,  a  native  of  Pontus,  flourished  about  140. 
He  is  usually  classified  among  the  Gnostics,  although 
on  many  points  he  differed  widely  from  them.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  dangerous  of  the  Gnostics.  He 
represented  the  extreme  of  opposition  to  Judaism,  and 
took  Paul  for  his  model. 

J.  The  Results  of  Gnosticism 

From  the  facts  already  given  we  are  prepared  to 
learn  that  the  effects  of  Gnosticism  were  both  bad  and 
good.  If  we  look  for  the  bad  effects  we  find  them: 
first,  in  the  realm  of  ethics.  Matter  was  the  source  of 
evil.     One  party  sought  to   "suppress  and  uproot  the 

*See  Stearns:  Manual  of  Patrol.,  p.  153. 


80       A  Sliort  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

sensuous."  This  led  to  the  strictest  asceticism. 
Another  party  claimed  that  the  way  to  overcome 
sensuality  was  to  indulge  in  it.  This  led  to  libertin- 
ism, which  was  sometimes  carried  to  the  greatest 
extremes.  In  this  manner  "both  Gnostic  asceticism 
and  Gnostic  laxity  found  their  way  into  the  church, 
and  corrupted  the  pure  springs  of  Christian  morality." 

Second.  Redemption  consisted  in  mere  knowledge. 
This  lead  to  intellectual  pride.  Redemption  was  only 
for  a  select  few.  This  aristocracy  perished  in  the 
presence  of  the  humility  and  universality  of  Christian- 
ity. 

Third.  It  was  unhistorical.  Instead  of  founding 
itself  upon  solid  fact  it  gave  way  to  mysticism  and 
allegory. 

But  we  are  not  to  overlook  the  compensations  that 
come  from  this  severe  stress  through  which  the  church 
had  to  pass. 

The  Gnostics  were  the  first  theologians.  They 
attempted  to  reduce  religion  to  a  comprehensive  and 
harmonious  system.  The  Christians  were  often  put  to 
desperate  straits,  but  out  of  the  conflict  came  clear 
thought  and  definite  statements  of  the  great  funda- 
mental truths  of  the  Gospel.  In  a  word,  from  the 
impulse  which  the  Gnostics  gave  came  the  beginnings 
of  scientific  theology.  As  accompaniments  of  this  we 
can  say: 

1st.  Christianity  came  to  the  front  and  Judaism  fell 
to  the  rear. 

2d.  Art  and  literature  were  recognized  and  used  as 
powerful  instruments  which  could  be  effectively 
employed  in  the  interests  of  the  church. 

The  net  result  of  this  mighty  and  perilous  conflict 
was  to  the  marked  advantage  of  Christianity. 


Prom  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      81 

The  student  should  consult: 

Irenaeus:  Agai?ist  Heresies. 

Mansel:  G?iostic  Heresies. 

Harnack:  Hist.  Dogma.     Vol.  I,  pp.  222-286. 

Schaff:  H.  C.  C.     Vol.  II,  pp.  442-508. 

c.  Manic haeisnt 

Manichaeism  arose  in  the  third  century  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  empire.  It  has  so  many  marks  in  com- 
mon with  Gnosticism  that  many  historians  classify  it 
as  a  form  of  that  error.  But  it  came  from  the  farther 
east,  and  did  not  originate  in  vital  connection  with 
Christianity.  It  absorbed  its  Christian  elements  only  as 
it  moved  westward,  and  in  the  net  result  was  far  less 
Christian  in  its  essence.  It  is  consequently  much 
more  of  an  independent  and  rival  religion  than  Gnos- 
ticisrn. 

The  founder  of  Manichaeism  was  Mani,  a  member  of 
a  distinguished  Magian  family.  He  traveled  exten- 
sively in  the  east;  was  learned  and  eloquent;  acquired 
a  wide  influence;  was  flayed  alive  in  Persia,  and  his 
skin  was  stuffed  and  put  on  exhibition  at  Gundeshafer 
as  a  warning. 

Mani's  problem  was  the  problem  of  all  the  ages — 
the  conflict  of  good  and  evil.  What  is  its  origin? 
What  is  its  solution?     Let  us  notice: 

7.    The  Doctrines  of  Mani 

1st,  Creation.  Originally  there  were  two  eternal 
principles — one  of  light,  the  other  of  darkness.  In  the 
long  conflict  between  these  principles  a  portion  of  the 
light  became  imprisoned  in  the  darkness.  In  order  to 
retain  this  light  the  power  of  darkness  created  man  in 
whom  darkness  and  light  were  combined.     Man,  then, 


82      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

from  the  beginning  was  the  victim  of  two  utterly 
antagonistic  principles  which  struggled  within  him  for 
the  mastery. 

2d.  Redemption.  To  relieve  this  deplorable  situa- 
tion Christ  came  in  a  seeming  body — the  Jcsiis pati- 
bilis,  who  suffered  a  seeming  death.  This  Christ  was 
to  draw  all  the  particles  of  light  to  himself.  The 
ofifice  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  Paraclete,  is  filled  by  Mani. 

3d.  Ethics.  It  follows  from  the  extreme  dualism  of 
the  system  that  Manichaeism  will  reach  the  extreme 
of  asceticism.  Matter  is  entirely  bad  and  the  soul 
must  be  entirely  free.  This  highest  morality  is  required 
of  the  elect,  whose  moral  code  is  summarized  in  three 
seals,  as  follows: 

1st.  The  seal  of  the  mouth,  into  which  no  evil  thing, 
such  as  animal  food,  is  to  pass,  or  out  of  which  no 
impure  word  is  to  come. 

2d.  The  seal  of  the  hands  which  are  to  do  no  evil 
deeds — such  as  are  found  in  material  or  industrial  pur- 
suits. 

3d.  The  seal  of  the  bosom,  which  forbids  all  sen- 
suous gratification. 

This  high  standard  was  not  attained  by  all  of  the 
elect,  and  many  of  the  auditors  fell  to  low  depths  of 
sensuality. 

2.    The  Orgajiization  of  Maiiichaeism 

This  was  very  complete.  Mani  and  his  successors 
stood  at  the  head  of  twelve  apostles  and  seventy-two 
bishops  and  a  priesthood,  thus  following  a  Christian 
model.  There  were  two  classes — the  elect  and  the 
hearers.  Only  the  former  were  required  to  keep  the 
three  seals.  The  latter  were  allowed  to  engage  in  the 
ordinary  activities  of  life. 


From  the  Apostolic  Age   to  Constantine      83 

J.  The  Extent  of  Manichaeaji  Influence 

This  was  very  wide  both  in  the  east  and  in  the  west — 
including  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  North 
Africa,  Gaul,  Italy,  and  Spain.  In  spite  of  cruel  per- 
secutions it  was  long  lived.  In  the  time  of  Augustine 
it  was  able  to  capture  the  great  African  as  an  auditor 
and  hold  him  for  years.  After  he  became  convinced 
of  its  essential  errors,  he  gave  much  of  his  best  energy 
to  its  refutation.  It  continued  to  have  influence  until 
late  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Literary  afid  Philosophical  Attacks  o?i  Christianity 

Ebionism,  Gnosticism,  and  Manichaeism  were  all  in 
more  or  less  vital  connection  with  Christianity,  and 
they  were  dangerous  just  because  of  this  connection. 
No  enemies  are  so  much  to  be  dreaded  as  those  within 
one's  own  household,  or  as  those  who  can  claim  kin- 
ship. 

We  are  now  to  consider  some  of  the  assaults  that 
were  made  upon  the  new  religion  entirely  from  the 
outside.  These  attacks  came  from  literature  and 
philosophy.  Stoicism  was  the  dominant  philosophy, 
during  the  first  two  centuries.  It  had  many  distin- 
guished and  illustrious  followers,  among  whom  were 
Seneca,  Epictetus,  and  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  ethics 
of  Stoicism  was  pure  and  austere.  The  Stoics  were 
hostile  to  Christianity  because  they  did  not  understand 
it,  and  because  they  thought  it  injurious  to  society  and 
the  state.  Their  opposition  was  earnest  and  direct, 
but  it  was  not  difficult  to  overcome. 

But  there  were  other  forms  of  opposition  that  were 
extremely  serious,  and  that  called  for  the  best  effort 
that  Christian  thought  could  put  forth.     We  notice: 


84       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

a.    The  Skeptics 

They  were  of  a  class  whose  lineage  runs  back  as  far 
as  Pyrrho  in  the  fourth  century,  B.  C.  Their  method 
was  ridicule,  and  their  attacks  were  serious.  The 
Skeptics  had  ridiculed  the  religions  of  paganism,  and 
now  they  turn  upon  Christianity.  Two  of  these 
Skeptics  should  have  special  notice.     They  are: 

1st.  Lucian  of  Samosata.  He  flourished  in  the 
second  century.  He  had  a  sharp  critical  mind  that 
detected  every  flaw  and  every  imperfection,  and  so  by 
nature  he  found  it  impossible  to  be  reverent  or  to  have 
any  sympathy  with  the  higher  realms  of  human  life. 
He  was  satirical,  scornful,  and  gifted  with  a  richly 
inventive  fancy.  He  regarded  Christ  as  a  crucified 
sophist,  and  the  Christians  as  a  "well  meaning  but 
silly  people,"  and  all  their  most  characteristic  merits 
as  but  evidences  of  superstition.  "They  persuade 
themselves  that  they  are  all  brethren."  Lucian  was  a 
prolific  author,  and  because  of  their  striking  literary 
merits  his  works  have  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages. 

2d.  Celsus.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Lucian. 
They  are  known  to  have  been  friends.  But  Celsus  had 
far  greater  ability.  He  seems  to  have  mastered  the 
entire  field  of  human  knowledge  and  to  have  combined 
all  the  strength  he  could  gather  from  every  source  in 
expressing  his  hatred  of  Christianity.  His  book 
was  entitled  A  True  Discourse.  He  had  thoroughly 
studied  Judaism  and  Christianity,  but  as  always  hap- 
pens when  men  study  without  sympathy,  he  missed  the 
essential  meaning  of  the  subject,  and  the  result  was, 
upon  the  whole,  a  dismal  failure.  His  book  was 
especially  aimed  at  the  divinity  of  Christ,  His  virgin 
birth,   His    miracles    and    resurrection.       He   rejected 


Prom  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      85 

Christ  as  an  impostor,  and  if  Christianity  contained 
any  merits  they  were  not  original  with  it,  J^ut  were  all 
borrowed  from  the  world  and  existed  before  it  came. 
Historians  are  quite  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that 
skepticism  has  not  advanced  any  argument  against 
Christianity  that  cannot  be  found  in  some  form  in  the 
True  Discourse  of  Celsus.  The  book  has  perished, 
but  Origen,  in  his  famous  reply,  has  made  such 
numerous  and  extensive  quotations  that  we  probably 
have  the  substance  of  it. 

b.  Neoplatonism 

The  whole  history  of  philosophy  is  the  story  of 
man's  effort  to  explain  the  riddle  of  the  universe. 
Philosophy  had  already  done  its  best  when  the  Saviour 
appeared.  By  the  opening  of  the  third  century  the 
Gospel  was  sending  a  thrill  of  new  life  all  through  the 
empire.  Its  uplifting  ideas;  the  unapproachable  char- 
acter of  its  Founder;  its  fruits  as  seen  in  the  superior 
lives  of  its  followers  had  created  a  profound  impression. 

Philosophy  as  represented  by  Stoicism  and  Epi- 
cureanism was  unable  to  show  any  such  results.  But 
enriched,  stimulated,  provoked  by  Christianity, 
philosophy  was  to  make  one  more  desperate  attempt 
to  solve  the  problem.  In  the  past  it  had  rendered  the 
new  religion  an  invaluable  service,  by  showing  the 
fatal  weakness  of  polytheism,  but  now  it  begins  to 
realize  that  it  is  working  to  the  advantage  of  this  new 
religion  which,  in  the  end,  is  sure  to  prove  a  hard 
master.  Thus  aroused,  and  convinced  that  the  tradi- 
tional religions  contain  elements  of  truth  that  are 
foreign  to  Christianity,  it  ends  by  taking  back  what  it 
has  said,  turning  right  about  face,  and  seeking  the 
annihilation  of  its  new  and  powerful  foe.     It  armed 


8G       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

itself  with  weapons  from  c\cr\'  source  and  took  the 
form  known  as  Neoplatonism.  Its  struggle  with 
Christianity  was  brilliant  and  pathetic,  but  it  repre- 
sented the  exhaustion  of  the  ancient  world,  and  its 
problems  remained  unsolved.  It  arose,  matured, 
decayed,  and  died — bequeathing  an  inheritance;  its 
formidable  rival  arose,  matured,  endured,  and  entered 
into  the  inheritance. 
Let  us  notice: 

/.  T/ie  Origi7i  and  Development  of  Neoplatonism 

The  school  seems  to  be  foreshadowed  in  Philo.  The 
fact  that  it  originated  in  Alexandria,  the  very  center 
of  Christian  and  Gnostic  activity,  renders  it  almost 
certain  that  many  of  its  ideas  were  borrowed  from 
those  sources.  Ammonius  Saccas,  its  reputed  founder, 
was  born  of  Christian  parents,  and  it  has  been  claimed 
that  he  never  renounced  Christianity.  Among  his  dis- 
ciples were  Origen,  the  Christian,  and  Plotinus,  the 
Neoplatonist — 205-270. 

The  school  of  Plotinus  was  located  at  Rome,  which 
was  the  common  meeting  place  where  all  the  ideas  in 
the  world  jostled  each  other.  This  school  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  in  history.  Its  pupils  came  from 
the  ends  of  civilization.  They  represented  the  learned 
professions,  the  men  and  women  of  culture;  and  even 
the  emperor,  Gallienus,  and  the  empress,  Salonina,  were 
members.  For  twenty-five  years,  beginning  about  244, 
Plotinus  was  the  leader  of  this  splendid  center  of  culti- 
vated people.  As  Christianity  had  its  Founder  and 
leaders  in  the  persons  of  Christ,  the  Apostles,  and  the 
martyrs,  so  Neoplatonism  had  its  divine  leaders  in  the 
persons  of  the  Attic  philosophers  whose  works  were 
studied  as  infallible  guides. 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine       87 

Plotinus   as   head   of  this   school,  and   as   a   prolific 
writer,   became    the    real    founder    of    Neoplatonism. 
The  school  is  to  be  regarded  as  in  its  essence  religious 
as    opposed  to   scientific.     It  starts  from  a  transcen-      9^.^^ 
dental  conception  of  God,  from  whom  it  develops  the  y- 

universe.  The  process  is  emanation  and  absorption.  >'*''>''^**'^''*'*'*^ 
The  world  is  an  overflow  from  God  and  its  ultimate 
goal  is  reabsorption  into  God.  There  are  three  stages 
in  the  process  of  overflow — spirituality,  animality,  and 
corporeality.  There  are  also  three  stages  in  the 
process  of  reabsorption — sensible  perception,  reason- 
ing, and  mystical  intuition. 

In  the  o\'erflow  there  are  three  distinctions  of  being — 
intellect  with  its  ideas;  soul  with  its  notions;  body 
with  its  forms.  Still  below  is  pure  formless  matter  or 
non-being. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  battles  of  practical 
life  are  to  be  fought  in  the  soul.     Above  is  the  intel-      -^^^-t^ 
lect  with  its  higher  attractions  inspiring  the  soul  to  the      Ji^^rxJi^ 
intellectual   life,  to  contemplation,  apathy,   and  reab-      -^fitruJ 
sorption  where  it  loses   its  individuality  and  reposes 
on  the  bosom  of   God.     Below  is  the  body  enticing 
the  soul  to  the  base  life   in  matter.     The  yielding  of 
the  soul  constitutes  the  fall.     The  soul  is  free,  and  so 
determines  its  own  fate — the  choice  will  be  determined 
by   the    character   of   the    soul.      It    chooses   what    it 
desires. 

Corresponding  to  the  three  stages  of  reabsorption 
are  three  concrete  manifestations:  1st.  Art,  which  is 
sensuous^and  the  lowest  stage.  2d.  Love,  which 
seeks  a  return  to  God  in  the  human  soul.  3d.  Philoso- 
phy, which  is  the  highest  and  the  truest.  The  soul 
that  has  once  experienced  this  exalted  sphere  cares 
nothing  farther  for  art  and  love. 


88       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  work  of  Plotinus  was  carried  on  by  his  distin- 
guished pupil,  Porphxiy  (233-300).     Plotinus  had  writ- 
ten   fifty-four    works    of     various     lengths,     and    he 
requested  Porphyry  to  arrange  them.     Porphyry  made 
six  divisions  of  nine  parts — and  the  work  was  known 
as   the  Eiincads.      He    advances    upon    his    master   in 
several  respects.      He   is  more  practical;    he  finds  the 
origin  of  sin  in  the  desires  of  the  soul  rather  than  in 
the  body;   he   is  more  disturbed   by  the   immoralities 
found  in  many  of  the  popular  religions  and  sounds  the 
note  of   warning,    and   on    the    whole   becomes    more 
rigidly  ascetic.     But    his  hostility  to  Christianity  did 
not  abate.      His  attack  was  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
of  all  those  coming  from  the  outside.      He  assailed  the 
Scriptures  and  endeavored  to  show  that  they  were  not 
worthy  the  inspiration  claimed  for  them. 
(        In  him  Neoplatonism  already  begins  to  decline.      In 
y^ff^      its   conflicts   with   Christianity   it   is   drawn  more  and 
.s*'^    more  to  polytheism,  and  at  last  drops   into  the  most 
fi  disorderly  and   unaccountable   vagaries.      But   in   the 

)  midst  of  the  general  decline  two  men  of  extraordinary 

brilliancy  stand  forth: 

Jamblicus  (330)  the  Caelosyrian,  and  Proclus  of 
Byzantium  (412-485)  who  taught  at  Athens.  "Proclus 
looks  upon  the  practice  of  ?nagic  as  the  essence  of 
religion;  for  Plato,  religion  meant  the  practice  of 
justice.  There  is  as  great  a  difference  between  these 
two  conceptions,  as  between  mature,  enlightened  and 
vigorous  manhood,  and  decrepit  and  supersitious  old 
age"   (Weber,  p.  183). 

Early  in  the  sixth  century  Neoplatonism,  as  a  sys- 
tem, ceased  to  exist.  Why  could  it  not,  as  a  rival 
religion,  compete  with  Christianity?  We  find  the 
best  answer  in  the  Co7ifessio?is  of  Augustine  (Bk.  VII., 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      89 

18-21).  It  is  summarized  by  Harnack  as  follows: 
"First  and  above  all  it  lacked  a  religious  founder;  » 
secondly,  it  was  unable  to  give  any  answer  to  the 
question  how  one  could  permanently  maintain  the 
mood  of  blessedness  and  peace;  it  lacked  the  means  ^ 
of  winning  those  who  could  not  speculate"  (Hist,  of 
Dogma,  Vol.  I.,  p-  344)- 

2.   The  I7iflue7ice  of  Neoplatonism 

As  we  have  already  indicated,  in  its  great  conflict 
with  Christianity,  Neoplatonism  seemed  to  have  a  lost 
cause  from  the  beginning.  It  had  much  in  common 
with  its  rival  from  the  start.  The  Neoplatonists 
accused  the  Christians  of  getting  their  ideas  from 
philosophy,  and  the  Christians  accused  the  Neoplaton- 
ists of  stealing  all  theirs  from  Christianity.  They 
both  aimed  to  solve  the  riddle  of  existence,  and  so 
had  a  common  problem.  They  agreed  that  matter 
was  not  necessarily  evil,  and  that  spirit  might  come 
into  contact  with  matter  without  contamination. 
They  both  advocated  a  lofty  and  pure  morality.  That 
either  of  them,  therefore,  could  have  vanquished  the 
other  without  gaining  much  from  the  vanquished,  is 
impossible.  What  then  are  some  of  the  influences 
that  Neoplatonism  has  had  upon  the  world  and  upon 
Christian  thought? 

1st.  It  bequeathed  to  all  succeeding  ages  "a  frame 
of  mind,"  namely,  that  "the  blessedness  which  can 
alone  satisfy  man  is  to  be  found  somewhere  else  than 
in  the  sphere  of  knowledge."  Neoplatonism  did  not 
afford  this  satisfaction,  but  it  left  the  desire  to  burn 
steadily  as  long  as  the  human  race  shall  exist  upon  the 
earth. 

2d.   It  has  been  said  that  Neoplatonism  was  to  many 


90       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

minds  a  "school  master  to  bring  them  to  Christ,  for  it 
changed  the  whole  character  of  ancient  philosophy." 
The  most  notable  example  is  the  case  of  Augustine. 
By  its  aid  he  escaped  from  Manichaeism,  and  in  many 
of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  his  theology  he  remained 
dependent  upon  Neoplatonism,  yet  he  was  always  clear 
on  the  essential  differences  between  it  and  Christianity. 
3d.  Although  Neoplatonism  started  out  as  religion 
in  complete  opposition  to  science  it  came  to  be  in  the 
Middle  Ages  the  source  from  which  science  developed 
itself.  "Magic,  astrology,  alchemy,  all  of  which 
were  closely  connected  with  Neoplatonism  gave  an 
effectual  impulse  to  the  observation  of  nature,  and 
consequently  to  natural  science,  and  finally  prevailed 
over  barren  and  formal  rationalism.  ...  In  point  of 
fact  actual  history  is  often  more  wonderful  and 
capricious  than  legends  and  fables." 

LITERATURE 

Harnack:  Hist,  of  Dogma.     Vol.  I,  pp.  336-364. 

Weber:  Hist,  of  Phil.,  pp.  167-184. 

Schaff:  H.  C.  C.     Vol.  II,  pp.  95-104. 

Inge:  Am.  Jour.  Theol.  Vol.  IV,  pp.  328-344.  "The 
Permanent  Influence  of  Neoplatonism  upon  Chris- 
tianity." 

F.     CHRISTIAN    THOUGHT    AND    LITERATURE 

In  the  stress  of  controversy  the  Christians  found  it 
of  the  utmost  urgency  so  to  marshal  their  forces  as  to 
make  them  count  for  the  most  possible.  This  neces- 
sity led  to  a  great  development  of  thought  and  liter- 
ature. If  there  are  any  documents  that  are  authorita- 
tive the  time  has  come  when  they  should  be  singled 
out  and  arranged  in  some  kind  of  order.  This  leads 
us  to  notice: 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      91 

The  New  Testament  Canon 

The  Old  Testament  had  come  down  from  the  Jews 
and  was  accepted  by  Christians.  It  served  as  a  model 
in  the  growth  of  the  New  Testament  Canon.  This 
Canon  was  a  gradual  formation  beginning  in  apostolic 
times  and  extending  into  the  fourth  century.  As 
errors  arose  within  the  church  and  as  powerful  enemies 
attacked  it  from  without,  an  exact  distinction  between 
the  inspired  and  the  uninspired  writings  had  to  be 
made  in  order  that  Christians  might  have  a  reliable 
standard  of  appeal.  It  seems  certain,  therefore,  that 
the  stress  of  the  first  three  centuries  was  an  important 
influence  in  the  formation  of  the  New  Testament 
Canon.* 

The  Omrch  Fathers  f 

It  has  been  truly  said  that  in  history  we  occasion- 
ally have  clusters  of  great  men.  Instances  are  cited, 
as  the  Greek  tragedians,  the  Greek  philosophers,  and 
the  Church  Fathers.  It  has  been  laid  to  the  charge  of 
the  Church  Fathers  that  they  are  responsible  for  all 
the  subsequent  troubles  of  the  church.  History, 
however,  shows  that  they  were  confronted  by  prob- 
lems upon  whose  immediate,  if  not  ultimate,  solution 
depended  the  existence  of  the  Christian  faith.  They 
were  often  narrow  in  their  conceptions  and   intolerant 

*See  Ryle :  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  Westcott : 
General  Survey  of  the  History  of  the  Ca7ion  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Wynne:  "Gradual  Growth  of  the  New  Testament 
Canon,"  in  the  volume,  The  Literature  of  the  Second  Century. 
Hastings:  Diet,  of  Bible,  Arts.  "Canon";  "Old  Testament 
Canon";  and  "New  Testament  Canon." 

fSee,  for  the  Fathers,  the  translations  published  by  the  Christian 
Literature  Pub.  Co.     Also  Farrar's  Lives  of  the  Fathers. 


92       A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

toward  their  opponents,  and  wrong  in  their  conclusions. 
Ne\ertheless,  they  did  the  best  that  in  them  lay,  and 
every  fair-minded  student  must  admit  the  magnitude 
of  the  service  they  rendered.  If  succeeding  centuries 
were  so  unwise  as  to  take  their  deliverances  for 
finalities — making  a  "thus  saith  a  Father"  of  equal 
authority  with  a  "thus  saith  the  Lord,"  the  blame  can 
hardly  be  laid  to  the  Fathers  who  served  their  day  and 
generation  with  such  light  as  they  could  get.  The 
blame  rather  attaches  to  those  later  generations  who 
should  have  remembered  that,  while  absolute  truth 
never  varies,  each  age  has  its  own  point  of  view  with 
its  own  problems  to  solve,  and  that  its  duty  is  to  see 
and  use  all  the  results  that  have  been  obtained,  and 
with  this  backing  to  push  on  to  the  discharge  of  its 
own  immediate  obligations.  As  soon  as  their  point  of 
view,  and  their  special  environments  are  understood 
the  wonder  is  not  that  the  Fathers  did  so  poorly  but  so 
well. 

By  the  Church  Fathers  we  usually  understand  the 
great  Christian  writers  of  the  first  six  centuries.  Some 
of  them  were  not  men  of  much  originality  or  intellec- 
tual ability,  but  they  were,  nevertheless,  of  marked 
individuality.  Others  were  the  intellectual  peers  of 
the  greatest  secular  thinkers  of  all  ages,  and  exercised 
tremendous  influence  on  thought.  Such  men  were 
Origen  and  Augustine. 

The  Church  Fathers  are  ordinarily  grouped  into 
the  Ante-Nicene,  the  Nicene,  and  the  Post-Nicene 
Fathers — as  they  lived  before,  during,  or  after  the 
great  controversy  that  was  settled  at  Nicaea  in  325. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  Fathers  was 
very  wide.  Their  environments  were  very  differ- 
ent.     In   their,  mental    constitutions   there    was    the 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine      93 

greatest  diversity.  In  view  of  these  facts,  therefore, 
we  are  prepared  to  hear  the  discussion  of  a  very  wide 
range  of  problems  from  very  many  points  of  view.  We 
do  not  look  for  agreement  at  all  points;  when  we 
remember  that  the  Fathers  were  just  men  we  under- 
stand perfectly  well  that  in  the  times  of  severe  testing, 
the  saints  will  not  prove  to  be  altogether  saintly. 

Among  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  the  groups  are 
commonly  arranged  as  follows: 

a.   The  Apostolic  Fathers 

This  term  is  applied  to  those  Fathers  who  are  sup- 
posed to  have  had  some  personal  connection  with  one 
or  more  of  the  Apostles.  But  it  was  given  to  some 
of  whom  this  cannot  be  affirmed  with  certainty. 
There  can  be  but  little  doubt  as  to  Clement  of  Rome, 
Ignatius,  and  Polycarp.  They  were  not  men  of  strong 
intellectuality,  but  they  were  characterized  by  deep 
earnestness.  Perhaps  their  very  proximity  to  the 
Apostles  handicapped  them,  so  that  the  most  they 
could  do  was  simply  to  repeat  in  a  much  weaker  form 
what  they  had  heard. 

Important  writings  of  this  period  are:  The  Shep- 
herd of  Her  mas — the  Pilgrim's  Progress  of  the  age;  The 
Epistle  to  Diognetus ;  The  Fragments  of  Papias ;  The 
Epistle  of  Barnabas;  The  Second  Clement;  and  The 
Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.. 

b.   The  Apologists 

Most  of  the  Apologists  embraced  Christianity  late  in 
life.  They  had  been  philosophers  and  statesmen,  and 
had  been  unable  to  find  rest  and  satisfaction  for  the 
deepest  needs  of  their  souls   in  their  special  pursuits. 


94      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

They  did  find  this  satisfaction  in  Christianity.  Being, 
therefore,  conscious  of  the  sufficiency  and  reasonable- 
ness of  the  Gospel,  and  of  the  injustice  of  the  charges 
made  against  the  Christians,  they  were  induced  to 
write  defenses  of  the  new  religion.  Some  of  these 
arguments  were  addressed  to  emperors,  some  to  the 
heathen  in  general,  and  some  to  the  Jews. 
The  great  Apologists  were: 

I.  Justin  Martyr 

Three  of  his  works  are  as  follows: 

First  Apology  to  Antoninus  Pius,  i88;  Second 
Apology  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  i6i;  Third,  The  Dialogue 
with  Trypho — to  the  Jews. 

2.  Melito — Bishop  of  Sardis 
Apology  to  Marcus  Aurelius.     c.  170. 
Eusebius  mentions  eighteen  works  of  his. 

J.  Tatian  of  Assyria 
Discourses  to  the  Greeks;  Diatesseron — "According 
to  the  Four."     He  afterwards  became  a  Gnostic. 

4.  Athenagoras 
"Embassy  Concerning   the    Christians" — addressed 
to  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus.     c.  177. 

5.  Theophiliis — Bishop  of  Aiitioch 
6.  Mimicitis  Felix 
A  Latin  writer.     "Octavius" — a  dialogue   between 
a  Christian  and  a  heathen. 

c.  Polemics 
The   Apologists   were    engaged    in    explaining  and 
defending  the    positions  of  the   church   from   outside 


From  the  Apostolic   Age  to  Constantine       95 

attacks.  But  we  have  seen  the  most  dangerous  foes 
arising  in  organic  connection  with  the  church — as 
Ebionism  and  Gnosticism.  The  peril  was  met  by  two 
men  who  were  Greek  by  education,  but  whose  work 
was  done  in  the  west. 

I.  Ircnaciis — Bishop  of  Lyons  {iyy-202) 

He  was  a  pupil  of  Polycarp  through  whom  he  caught 
the  spirit  of  John.  He  settled  in  southern  Gaul,  and 
was  bishop  of  Lyons  in  the  time  of  the  persecutions 
by  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  chief  work  was:  Against 
Heresies.  This  work  is  our  principal  source  of  infor- 
mation concerning  the  Gnostics. 

2.  Hippolytus 

He  was  born  at  Rome  of  Greek-speaking  parents. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Irenaeus,  c.  200,  and  bishop  of 
Portus  near  Rome.  His  chief  work  was  entitled: 
Refutation  of  All  Heresies. 

d.  The  Alexandrian  School 

Alexandria  had  long  been  one  of  the  greatest  centers 
of  literary  activity.  All  the  conditions  were  such  as 
to  make  it  so.  Oriental,  Jew,  Greek  and  Christian 
met  there.  The  libraries  were  extensive;  the  profes- 
sors were  very  distinguished;  the  students  were 
numerous  and  eager.  That  Christianity  should  stand 
aloof  and  see  nothing  good  in  Greek  culture  was  out  of 
the  question.  The  very  nature  of  Christianity  with  its 
infinite  reach  of  sympathy,  its  infinite  capacity  to 
assimilate  all  truth  was  such  as  to  lead  it  into  living 
connection  with  all  that  was  good  in  every  thought  and 
every  act  of  man.  Judaism  and  Greek  thought  had 
met   in   Philo.     The  Gospel   had  gone  to  Alexandria 


06      A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

very  early.  Tradition  makes  Mark  the  founder  of  the 
catechetical  school.  Philosophers  were  converted 
and  at  once  found  their  systems  serviceable  in  putting 
the  faith  into  a  rational  and  systematic  form,  and  the 
inevitable  event  was  a  combination  of  Christianity  with 
Greek  thought.  It  was  foreordained  that  Alexandria 
should  be  the  center  in  which  Christianity  should  have 
its  highest  intellectual  development.  The  three  great 
men  in  the  Ante-Nicene  period  were: 

/.  Pa7itae7ms 

He  was  a  convert  from  the  Stoic  philosophy,  and 
began  his  work  about  i8o. 

2.  Clemc7it 

He  was  probably  born  at  Athens,  and  was  educated 
in  the  heathen  schools.  He  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity and  succeeded  Pantaenus  about  199. 

His  great  works  are:  The  ExJiortatioii  to  the  Greeks; 
The  Educator ;  and  TJic  Stromata. 

J.   Origen  {185-253) 

Origen  was  born  of  Christian  parents.  He  was  an 
intellectual  prodigy,  and  at  the  same  time  a  man  of 
deep  earnestness  and  spirituality.  He  had  mastered 
the  entire  realm  of  literature.  From  his  persistent 
industry  he  was  called  the  Adamantine.  His  large 
conceptions  and  his  wide  sympathies  not  only  led  him 
to  see  many  sides  of  truth,  but  led  him  also  into 
numerous  errors.  As  his  influence  extended  he  became 
the  object  of  suspicion,  and  was  finally  branded  as  a 
heretic.  It  became  necessary  for  him  to  seek  another 
field  of  labor,  and  so,  in  231,  he  went  to  Caesarea,  in 
Palestine,  which  became  the  scene  of  his  remaining 
labors.     In  250  he  was  a  victim  of  the  Decian  persecu- 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine       97 

tion,  was  imprisoned  and  tortured,  and  died  shortly 
after  his  release  from  the  effects  of  his  persecutions. 

The  reports  of  the  productions  from  his  pen  seem 
incredible.  According  to  Jerome  he  wrote  more  than 
most  men  can  read  in  a  lifetime.  It  is  said  that  his 
writings  amounted  to  six  thousand  volumes.  Some 
have  thought  this  a  clerical  error  for  six  hundred; 
others,  inclined  to  accept  the  statement,  would  include 
all  his  pamphlets,  tracts,  letters  and  homilies  as  sep- 
arate volumes. 

Origen  is  important  from  nearly  all  points  of  view. 
He  is  the  best  and  completest  expression  of  the  Alex- 
andrian theology  whose  supreme  end  was  the  reconcil- 
iation of  Faith  and  Knowledge.  The  basis  of  such  a 
reconciliation  must  be  the  Bible,  and  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Bible  as  formulated  in  Christian  doctrines. 
Reason  and  truth  meet  in  the  Logos. 

That  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  should  have  been 
devoted  to  the  study  of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
is,  therefore,  not  in  the  least  surprising.  The  result 
is  the  Hexapla,  the  name  being  derived  from  the  six 
columns  in  which  it  was  written.  His  purpose  seems 
to  have  been  to  put  all  the  available  material  within 
reach  of  his  students,  and  not  to  determine  the  true 
text  of  the  Old  Testament — a  thing  quite  impossible 
for  the  scholarship  of  that  time. 

But  Origen's  mind  was  essentially  constructive.  He 
could  not  rest  simply  in  the  Faith.  He  must  have  the 
Faith  rationalized  and  systematized.  The  result  is 
seen  in  his  First  Priiiciples — "the  first  attempt  at  a  sys- 
tematic explanation  of  Christian  doctrine."  This 
remarkable  work  is  divided  into  four  books:  "God  and 
Creation";  "Creation  and  Providence";  "Man  and 
Redemption";  and  the  "Holy  Scriptures." 


98       A  Short   History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  stiRlcnt  o[  the  First  Principles  will  be  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  many  of  our  modern  problems  had 
been  seriously  pondered  by  Origen — and  that  in  many 
particulars  we  have  not  passed  far  beyond  him. 

In  his  Eight  Books  Against  Cclsus  we  have  the  best 
that  the  age  could  bring  against  the  fierce  antagonists 
of  Christianity.  Origen  was  often  hard  put  to  it,  but 
his  reply  will  always  command  the  highest  respect. 

As  an  interpreter  of  Scripture  Origen  was  volumi- 
nous. He  commented  at  great  length  on  every  book 
of  Scripture.  An  example  is  given  in  his  thirty-two 
books  on  about  half  of  John's  Gospel. 

His  method  was  not  only  literal  but  moral  and 
allegorical,  and  this  last  method  led  him  and  his  fol- 
lowers into  the  wildest  vagaries. 

These  facts  strongly  suggest  that  Origen  still  has 
great  lessons  for  the  Christian  world.  It  has  never 
been  so  evident  as  at  the  present  moment  that  a  Chris- 
tianity limited  in  its  scope  has  no  chance  for  success. 
It  must  include  mind  and  intellect,  heart  and  spirit — 
indeed  the  entire  man.  It  must  also  include  all  man's 
doings  as  they  are  found  in  history,  and  society,  and 
all  the  sciences  that  have  developed  out  of  the  phys- 
ical universe.  In  some  way  or  other  it  must  be 
believed  that  the  Incarnation  is  the  key  to  it  all.  As 
it  does  this  it  may  hope  to  control  in  the  truest  sense 
the  world's  thinking,  and  realize  its  matchless  ideals 
in  the  lives  of  men.* 

e.  The  North  African  Fathers 
The  early  fathers   in  the  western  church  as  Clement 
of  Rome,  Irenaeus   and  Hippolytus  were  Greek  either 

*On  the  Alexandrians,  see  Bigg :  The  Christian  Platonists  of 
Alexandria.  Fairweather:  Origsn  and  Greek  Patristic  The- 
ology. 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine       99 

by  birth  or  by  language.  It  was  not  in  Rome  but  in 
North  Africa  on  the  territory  of  ancient  Carthage  that 
a  Latin  Christian  literature  first  sprang  up.  It  was 
here,  too,  that  legal  conceptions  arose  to  prominence 
in  theology,  and  greatly  influenced  its  statements. 
This  resulted  from  the  fact  that  the  two  great  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers  of  the  western  church  were  lawyers. 
They  were: 

/.    Tertullia7i  {160-220  or  240) 

He  was  converted  from  a  dissolute  life  sometime 
after  his  thirtieth  year.  TertuUian  did  nothing  by 
halves,  and  as  soon  as  he  was  converted  he  threw  all 
the  energy  of  his  fiery  nature  into  the  defense  of  Chris- 
tianity. Unlike  Origen,  he  had  little  sympathy  with 
philosophical  speculations  in  religious  matters,  and 
some  of  his  strongest  utterances  were  against  the 
philosophers.  He  became  an  ardent  champion  of 
Montanism. 

2.  Cyprimi  {220-2^8) 

Born  of  wealthy  heathen  parents  Cyprian  chose  the 
legal  profession  and  through  it  became  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  He  was  converted  at  about  the  age  of  forty- 
six — and  two  years  later  was  made  a  bishop.  The 
twelve  years  of  his  Christian  life  were  devoted  to  ad- 
ministration, for  which  he  was  specially  gifted  by 
nature.  He  called  TertuUian  his  master  and  yet 
differed  from  him  in  almost  every  respect.  He  was 
far  more  tactful  in  dealing  with  men — Christian  and 
heathen  alike,  and  in  his  style  he  was  polished  where 
TertuUian  was  harsh.* 

In  TertuUian  and  Cyprian  we  see  a  striking  mani- 

*See  Benson's  Cyprian. 


10(1     .1  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

fcstation  of  the  practical   spirit  that   characterized  the 
west. 

Doubtful  and  Spurious  Writings 

In  their  zeal  for  the  cause,  many  of  the  Christians  of 
the  second  and  third  centuries  allowed  themselves  to 
be  consumed.  They  grasped  at  everything  that  they 
thought  could  render  them  a  service — and  were  led  to 
adopt  and  defend  positions  that  were  partly  or  entirely 
false.  Among  these  are  found  many  doubtful  and 
spurious  productions  as:  TJie  Sibylline  Oracles;  The 
Pseudo  -  Clementines ;  TJie  Apostolic  Co7istitutions ;  The 
Five  Decretal  Letters. 

Martyrologies 

The  memory  of  the  great  deeds  and  sufferings  of  the 
Apostles  lingered  on  and  was  a  mighty  inspiration  to 
the  centuries  immediately  succeeding.  But  it  also 
came  about  that  individual  churches  developed 
numerous  heroes  who  calmly  faced  the  civil  powers  or 
the  rabble,  and  died  without  flinching.  This  led  to 
the  establishment  of  memorial  days,  and  exercises  at 
which  the  deeds  of  each  particular  hero  were 
recounted.  Through  these  celebrations  all  were 
renewed  in  spiritual  power — and  enabled  the  better  to 
make  their  way  in  the  conflict. 

G.    CHRISTIAN    LIFE 

But  after  all  the  supreme  test  of  a  religion  is  found 
in  its  fruits  as  seen  in  the  lives  of  its  followers.  At 
the  close  of  the  first  century  Christianity  had  not  had 
time  to  show  very  marked  results  in  the  way  of  exten- 
sive transformations  of  character.     Society  was   sub- 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine     101 

staiicially  heathen.  It  was  still  heartless,  cruel, 
immoral,  in  a  most  deplorable  and  hopeless  condition. 
What  matters  it  whether  one  be  an  Ebionite,  a  Gnostic, 
a  Manichaean,  a  Stoic,  an  Epicurean,  a  Neoplatonist 
or  a  Christian,  if  his  religion,  or  his  philosophy  does 
not  show  itself  in  purity  of  personal  character,  in 
largeness  of  sympathy  for  all  mankind,  in  activity  for 
the  relief  of  the  ignorance  and  suffering  of  men?  As 
we  pass  through  the  second  and  third  centuries  do  we 
find  any  evidence  that  the  great  principles  of  the 
Master  are  taking  root  in  the  hearts  of  men;  that  the 
complexion  of  society  is  beginning  to  change  from 
coarse,  brutal  features,  or  cynical,  or  stoical  coldness 
towards  the  warm,  ruddy  glow  of  pure  and  healthy 
life?     What  are  the  facts?* 

The  answer  is  that  during  this  period  the  results  of 
Christ's  life  and  teachings  were  showing  themselves 
in  beautiful  developments;  in  the  private  lives  of 
individuals;  in  the  growth  of  affection  in  the  family 
circle — the  relations  of  husband  and  wife,  and  parents 
and  children;  in  the  extension  of  this  love  to  all  mem- 
bers of  the  churches;  in  the  farther  extension  of  this 
same  love  to  the  great  masses  of  degraded  and  suffer- 
ing humanity.  And  despite  the  cruel  persecutions  the 
influence  of  Christianity  was  rapidly  spreading,  and 
the  complexion  of  society  was  changing.  But  all  this 
of  necessity  led  to  a  definite  attitude  of  the  Christians 
toward  heathen  society  and  many  of  its  most  cherished 
customs.  Among  these  latter  were  the  heathen 
sources  of  pleasure — the  theater,  the  circus,  the  arena. 
Although  they  had  formerly  been  connected  with  reli- 
gion they  had  now  degenerated  into  nurseries  of  vice, 

*See  Schaff:  I/.  C.  C,  Vol.  II,  pp.  311-3S6. 


102     .4  Short   Histovv  of  the  Christ  inn  Church 

brutcilit\-  and  cruelty.  TIk:  liistorian  who  has  read 
deeply  into  the  society  of  this  period  can  at  least 
appreciate  if  he  does  not  fully  approve  the  general 
attitude  of  the  church  toward  amusements.  It  seemed 
useless  to  think  of  any  moral  or  spiritual  reformation 
of  the  world  as  long  as  the  whole  thought  and  talk  of 
the  people  were  centered  in  these  things  which  in 
themselves  were  so  essentially  debasing. 

The  position  of  the  church  on  slavery  developed 
slowly  but  surely.  There  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  what 
the  position  would  be  when  it  was  once  clearly  made 
out.  The  relations  between  master  and  slave  were  at 
once  ameliorated  among  Christians.  Clement  of 
Alexandria  voiced  a  sentiment  when  he  said  that 
"slaves  are  men  like  ourselves,"  and  there  are  many 
such  evidences  that  the  distinctions  in  classes  are 
breaking  down.  But  it  does  not  yet  appear  that  the 
institution  of  slavery  as  such  was  distinctly  con- 
demned. 

In  drawing  the  line  sharply  between  heathen  cus- 
toms requiring  a  sacrifice  and  compromise  of  the  faith, 
the  Christians  sometimes  went  too  far.  They  forgot 
for  instance  the  instruction  of  the  Apostle  when  he 
said:  "Let  each  man  abide  in  the  calling  wherein  he 
was  called"  (i   Cor.  7:  20). 

The  question  arose  as  to  whether  a  Christian  could 
engage  in  war.  It  was  energetically  debated — and 
Scripture  was  quoted  on  both  sides.  Again:  Ought  a 
Christian  to  engage  in  politics?  was  another  serious 
question.  Their  sense  of  other-worldliness  was  so 
strong  that  they  were  perhaps  generally  averse  to 
practical  political  activity.  This  caused  them  to  be 
regarded  with  contempt  and  often  with  suspicion  by 
their  heathen  neighbors. 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Const antine     103 

H.     MONASTICISM 

It  Is  easy  to  see  how  those  to  whom  the  new  light 
and  joy  had  come  in  such  abundance  and  satisfaction, 
in  looking  out  upon  a  world  so  steeped  in  sin  would 
wish  to  withdraw  from  it  entirely,  and  give  themselves 
up  to  holy  contemplation.  And  here  they  met  one  of 
their  most  dangerous  temptations.  Perhaps  the 
hardest  problem  in  life  is  found  just  here,  and  few 
there  be  that  solve  it  perfectly.  It  is  a  very  easy  thing 
to  give  oneself  up  completely  to  the  pleasures  of  life 
with  all  their  allurements  and  fascinations.  It  is  not 
so  very  difficult  for  the  souls  of  finer  mettle  to  with- 
draw entirely  from  the  world,  and  give  themselves  up 
wholly  to  the  higher  joys  of  thought  and  contempla- 
tion. But  to  the  true  Christian  neither  of  these 
extremes  is  possible.  The  world  is  not  all  bad — and 
following  the  example  of  our  Lord  Himself  it  was 
intended  that  we  should  enjoy  the  world  in  the 
numerous  ways  that  are  wide  open.  Neither  are 
thought  and  contemplation  all  good.  They  are  really 
only  good  in  the  last  analysis  as  they  are  realized  in 
practical  every-day  living  in  the  world — among  our 
fellow  men,  blessing  and  glorifying  both  them  and 
ourselves. 

It  is  in  men's  misguided  efforts  to  solve  this  problem 
that  we  find  the  origin  of  asceticism — a  disease  not 
peculiar  to  Christianity  but  to  humanity.  Out  of  the 
ascetic  spirit  arose  Monasticism. 

The  causes  that  led  to  Monasticism  are: 
Psychological 

The  deep  desire  planted  in  the  soul  to  escape  con- 
tamination is  universal.  This  led  the  heathen  to 
believe  that  matter  and  sense  are  essentially  evil — and 
the  Christian  to  the  same  conclusion. 


104     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Historical 

The  Christian  beheld  the  universal  corruption  of 
society.  He  saw  no  hope  of  purifying  it.  Moreover 
the  persecutions  of  Decius,  and  later  of  Maximinus, 
were  raging.  It  seemed  best  to  him,  therefore,  to 
save  himself  by  withdrawing  from  the  world,  and  giv- 
ing himself  up  to  meditation,  and  working  at  basket- 
making  and  small  gardening.  Besides  he  was 
probably  influenced  by  the  asceticism  of  the  Gnostics, 
Manichaeans,  and  later  Neoplatonists. 

Christian  Monasticism  originated  near  the  close  of 
our  period  with  Anthony,  who  was  born  of  Christian 
parents  at  Coma,  near  the  Thebaid,  about  251.  He 
lived  more  than  a  hundred  years.  That  the  Christians 
of  this  period  were  perfect  would  be  far  too  much  to 
claim.  They  were  charged  with  untruthtulness  and 
covetousness,  theft,  and  sometimes  adultery.  In  the 
persecutions  large  numbers  lapsed.* 

I.     WORSHIP 

The  worship  was  simple.  An  excellent  account  is 
given  by  Justin  Martyr,  Apology  /.,  65-67.  "On  Sun- 
day a  meeting  is  held  of  all  who  live  in  the  cities  and 
villages,  and  a  section  is  read  from  the  memoirs  of  the 
Apostles,  and  the  writings  of  the  Prophets  as  long  as 
the  time  permits.  When  the  reading  has  finished,  the 
president,  in  a  discourse  (or  homily)  gives  the 
admonition  and  exhortation  to  imitate  these  noble 
things.  After  this  we  all  arise  and  offer  a  common 
prayer.  At  the  close  of  the  prayer  as  we  have  before 
described  bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought. 
The    president    offers    prayer   and    thanks    for    them 

♦See  Discipline. 


From  the  Apostolic  Age   to  Constantine    105 

according  to  his  ability,  and  the  congregation  answers 
— Amen.  Then  the  consecrated  elements  are  dis- 
tributed to  each  one  and  partaken  of,  and  are  carried 
by  the  deacons  to  the  houses  of  the  absent.  The 
wealthy  and  the  willing  then  give  contributions 
according  to  their  free  will;  and  this  collection  is 
deposited  with  the  president  who  therewith  supplies 
orphans  and  widows,  the  poor  and  needy,  prisoners 
and  strangers,  and  takes  care  of  all  who  are  in  want." 

The  service  was  greatly  enriched  by  singing.  The 
Old  Testament  Psalms  and  some  portions  of  the  New 
Testament  were  used.  The  composition  of  hymns 
had  already  begun,  and  in  quality  they  were  not  only 
devotional  but  doctrinal. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch  is  supposed  to  have  introduced 
the  Antiphon.  The  Antiphon  was  sung  responsively 
by  a  double  choir. 

J.     CHRISTIAN    ART 

The  period  of  extensive  church  building  only  comes 
in  with  Constantine.  During  the  Ante-Nicene  period 
there  was  a  strong  feeling  adverse  to  any  artistic  dis- 
play. Both  Justin  Martyr  and  Origen  rather  took 
pride  in  answering  the  heathen  taunts  that  the  Chris- 
tians had  no  temples  by  saying  that  their  God  was 
everywhere  and  could  be  worshiped  anywhere — not 
being  shut  up  within  the  narrow  walls  of  temples. 
They  were  generally  averse  to  sacred  places  and 
images.  And  yet  there  were  numerous  indications 
that  the  change  that  was  soon  to  come  was  already 
beginning.  The  first  meeting  places  were  rooms  in 
private  houses,  usually,  perhaps,  the  dining  halls, 
"which  often  had  a  semi-circular  niche,  like  the  choir 
in  the   later  churches."     The  supper  table  became  the 


106    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

altar,  and  a  raised  place  was  added  for  the  reading  of 
scripture  and  the  exhortation  which  followed. 

But  with  the  increasing  numbers  of  communities  il 
became  necessary  to  haxe  larger  rooms.  While  in 
many,  probably  in  most  cases,  rooms  were  rented, 
church  building  on  the  model  of  the  Roman  Basilica 
was  begun,  and  so  in  the  third  century  numerous 
buildings  arose.  One  of  these  was  the  Church  of 
Nicomedia  which  overlooked  the  emperor's  palace, 
and  whose  demolition  inaugurated  the  Diocletian 
persecution. 

After  a  while  the  clergy  and  laity  were  separated, 
and  "the  way  was  gradually  prepared  for  the  division 
into  three  which  emerges  at  the  close  of  the  period — 
viz. :  a  foreJiall  for  heathens,  catechumens  and  penitents 
— the  7iave  proper  of  the  church  for  the  believers,  and 
the  raised  part — /JiJ/aa,  aSurov,  or  saiictiiariiim  with  the 
apse  in  which  are  found  the  altar  and  the  episcopal 
cathedra''  (Moeller,  H.  C.  C;  Vol.  I.,  p.  279). 

The  architectural  variations  which  were  so  fully 
developed  in  later  ages  can  often  be  traced  to  this  age. 

Decoration,  at  first  looked  upon  with  decided  disap- 
proval, gradually  appeared  in  the  form  of  pictures  and 
emblems.  Among  these  are  especially  the  dove,  the 
ship,  the  anchor,  the  fish,  the  lyre,  and  above  all  the 
cross. 

The  burial  places  of  the  ancient  Christians  afford  a 
most  interesting  subject  for  study.  The  decision  was 
very  soon  given  in  favor  of  interment  instead  of 
cremation  which  was  common  among  the  heathen, 
excepting  the  Greeks.  The  customs  of  the  Jews,  as 
also  especially  the  burial  of  the  Saviour,  had  a  very 
large  influence  in  establishing  the  customs  of  the 
Christians.     Burials  took  place  in  caves,  and  in  places 


From  the  Apostolic  Age  to  Constantine     107 

excavated  in  the  sides  of  the  hills.  This  custom  fol- 
lowed out,  led  to  the  development  of  the  catacombs 
which  are  subterranean  passages,  hundreds  of  miles  in 
length.  The  most  interesting  and  extensive  ones  are 
found  in  Rome.  Those  next  in  importance  are  at 
Naples,  but  they  are  also  found  at  Milan,  Sicily, 
Alexandria  in  Africa. 

The  excavation  of  the  catacombs  has  thrown  a  great 
flood  of  light  upon  many  of  the  intricate  problems  of 
Christian  archaeology.  The  pioneer  of  excavation  in 
our  century  is  De  Rossi  whose  results  are  published  in 
three  volumes  entitled  Roma  Sotteraiiea  Christiana.'^ 

*See  also  Parker:  ArchcEology  of  Rome;  and  Handbook  of 
Christian  and  Ecclesiastical  Ro7ne,  Vol.  I,  by  H.  M.  &  M.  A.  R.  T. 


CHAPTER    III 

FROM    CONSTANTINE    TO    GREGORY  I 

(313-590) 

The  age  of  Constantine  marks  a  great  turning-point 
in  history.  Processes  already  begun  are  further 
developed.  New  relations  and  adjustments  are  estab- 
lished, and  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  we  find  that 
momentous  changes  hav^e  taken  place.  These 
changes  are  found  in  politics,  in  society,  in  literature, 
in  art,  and  in  nearly  all  features  of  religion.  The 
period  is  one  of  the  most  intensely  fascinating  to  the 
student  of  ideas  and  institutions  in  their  early  stages 
that  history  offers. 

A.   Church  and  State 

LITERATURE 

Dill:  Roman  Society.  Covers  the  last  century  of  the 
western  empire.     2d  ed. 

A.     POLITICS    AND    SOCIETY 

The  general  policy  of  Diocletian  was  carried  to  its 
consummation  by  Constantine  and  his  sons.  But  at 
best  it  could  only  afford  temporary  relief.  The 
empire  had  done  its  work,  and  now  it  was  dying  of 
exhaustion.  This  exhaustion  manifested  itself  in 
numerous  forms,  among  which  we  may  designate  the 
economic  and  social  as  the  most  prominent.  We 
have  seen  that  the  empire  was   too  extensive  and  too 

108 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  109 

heterogeneous  to  be  governed  by  one  man  from  a 
single  center,  and  not  only  so,  but  that  it  was  steadily 
imperiled  by  the  great  cloud  of  barbarism  that  gath- 
ered and  hung  along  the  whole  northern  horizon. 

To  us  it  is  evident  that  the  establishment  of  four 
courts  to  take  the  place  of  one  must  enormously 
increase  the  taxes  imposed  on  the  provinces.  The 
new  administration  consisted  of  prefectures,  dioceses 
and  provinces.  In  each  of  these  divisions  there  was  a 
large  number  of  subordinates.  These  subordinates 
were  lacking  in  wisdom  and  were  utterly  unscrupulous 
in  their  methods.  The  student  of  modern  politics 
with  his  knowledge  of  human  nature  can  easily  under- 
stand what  must  have  been  the  horrors  of  the  situation. 
If,  now,  we  remember  that  "parallel  with  Constantine's 
civil  hierarchy  of  prefects,  vicars,  praesides  and 
smaller  officials  was  the  series  of  military  officers  from 
the  Magistri  Militiim,  the  duces  and  co?nites  down- 
wards," and  that  there  was  not  at  that  time  as  in  our 
own  age  any  powerful  and  organized  moral  sentiment 
with  methods  of  expressing  itself  effectively,  it 
becomes  very  easy  to  appreciate  still  more  fully  the 
wretchedness  of  the  people  in  the  provinces. 

Moreover,  the  third  century  had  been  cursed  with 
men  known  as  tyrants.  "As  in  old  Greece,"  says 
Freeman,  "a  tyrant  meant  a  man  who  unlawfully 
seized  on  kingly  power  in  a  commonwealth,  so  now  it 
meant  a  man  who  called  himself  emperor,  but  who  was 
held  not  to  have  a  lawful  right  to  the  title.  .  .  .  They 
were  called  tyrants  if  they  did  not  succeed  in  getting 
the  reigning  emperor  to  recognize  them  as  colleagues." 
These  tyrants  were  by  no  means  unknown  in  the 
fourth  century  and  they  constituted  another  very 
serious  disturbing  element.     We  are  thus  led  to  see 


110     A   Sliort  History  of  the  Christinn  Church 

how  the  civil  power  in  its  desperate  efforts  for  self- 
preservation  was  destroying  the  sources  of  its  power 
through  its  unstatcsmanlike  and  conscienceless 
officials  and  the  crushing  burdens  of  taxation  which 
it  imposed  upon  its  citizens. 

The  stress  of  the  burden  naturally  fell  upon  the 
provinces,  which  suffered  not  only  from  this  grievous 
extortion,  but  which  were  also  the  first  to  suffer  from 
the  incursions  of  the  barbarians.  As  we  have  already 
said  this  weakness  of  the  imperial  body  manifests 
itself  especially  in  economic  and  social  forms.  These 
forms  of  manifestation  are  so  closely  connected  as 
almost  to  stand  in  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect. 
"From  all  writers  who  deal  with  the  fourth  century 
comes  the  same  tale  of  declining  strength  and  energy. 
From  Lactantius  to  Zosimus  we  have  one  long  series 
of  laments  over  the  depression  and  misery  of  the 
provinces.  To  meet  the  increased  expenditures 
necessary  to  maintain  the  legions,  to  pay  the  hosts  of 
officials,  and  to  keep  up  the  luxurious  splendors  of  the 
imperial  courts,  not  only  were  the  taxes  raised  in 
amount,  but  the  most  oppressive  and  iniquitous  meth- 
ods were  adopted  to  secure  for  the  imperial  treasury 
every  penny  that  could  be  wrung  from  the  wretched 
taxpayers.  The  results  are  seen  in  such  pictures  as 
that  which  the  panegyrist  Eumenius  draws  of  the  state 
of  Gaul  (306-312)  under  Constantine,  in  the  accounts 
of  the  same  province  under  Julian  fifty  years  later,  in 
those  given  by  Zosimus  early  in  the  fifth  century,  and 
in  the  stringent  regulations  of  the  Theodosian  code 
dealing  with  the  assessment  and  collection  of  the 
taxes.  Among  the  graver  symptoms  of  economic  ruin 
were  the  decrease  of  population,  which  seriously 
diminished  not  only  the  number  of  the  taxpayers,  but 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  111 

the  supply  of  soldiers  for  the  legions;  the  spread  of 
infanticide;  the  increase  of  waste  lands  whose  owners 
and  cultivators  had  fled  to  escape  the  tax  collectors; 
the  declining  prosperity  of  the  towns;  and  the  con- 
stantly recurring  riots  and  insurrections,  both  among 
the  starving  peasants  as  in  Gaul,  and  in  populous 
cities  like  Antioch"  (Pelham  :  Outlines  of  Rornan  His- 
tory, pp.  565,  566). 

In  the  meantime  while  the  provinces  were  in  this 
most  distressing  condition,  and  while  the  empire, 
despite  its  vain  efforts  to  maintain  its  organization, 
was  rapidly  losing  its  power,  the  barbarians  were 
steadily  encroaching  upon  the  imperial  territory,  and 
growing  wiser  and  more  ambitious  with  every  advance. 
The  barriers  gradually  disappeared,  the  barbarians — 
Vandals,  Goths,  Franks— became  the  strong  supports 
of  different  emperors.  The  empire  is  finally  divided 
in  395  between  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  the  sons  of 
Theodosius.  The  emperors  count  for  less  and  less. 
The  invasions  of  Alaric  and  Genseric  come  on  apace. 
The  barbarians  gradually  lay  the  foundations  for 
vigorous  young  states;  in  476  Romulus  Augustulus 
retires,  and  the  western  division  of  the  empire  comes 
to  an  end;  Odoacer,  the  chief  of  the  barbarians,  is 
installed  as  a  ruler  in  Italy  and  the  course  of  events 
has  led  to  a  momentous  climax.  Roman  and  bar- 
barian have  come  together  never  again  to  separate. 
To  the  people  of  that  time  the  period  was  one  of  appall- 
ing confusion — but  it  was  only  the  confusion  that  is 
incident  to  all  preparation  for  great  issues.  There  is 
to  be  a  combination  of  elements  that  have  been 
widely  separated  in  origin,  but  whose  union  is  to  be 
mutually  supplementary — and  to  make  modern  civili- 
zation possible. 


112    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Italy  was  freed  from  direct  imperial  control,  but  the 
spirit  of  old  Rome  lived  on  and  prevailed  in  language 
and  in  administration.  But  henceforth  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  west  is  to  be  Romano-Germanic;  the  uni- 
versal political  dominion  of  Rome  is  to  pass  away,  and 
instead  we  are  to  have  separate  states  limited  by  nat- 
ural ethnic  and  geographical  boundaries;  and  as 
Christianity  is  universal  in  its  adaptation  to  the  needs 
of  men  its  extension  and  organization  were  greatly 
facilitated. 

B.     CHRISTIANITY 
LITERATURE 

Mehlhorn  :  Aiis  der  Que  lien  der  Kirchengeschichte .  A 
collection  of  sources  from  the  beginning  to  Charles  the 
Great.     Critically  annotated.     Of  the  first  importance. 

But  as  we  have  thus  been  rapidly  sketching  the 
political,  social  and  economic  developments  in  the 
dying  empire,  we  have  not  forgotten  the  presence  and 
influence  through  all  these  movements  of  a  new  prin- 
ciple that  had  come  into  the  world  almost  contem- 
poraneously with  the  empire.  While  the  principles 
controlling  the  political  and  social  theories  were  purely 
utilitarian  and  selfish  the  new  principle  was  love, 
sympathy,  universality.  Christianity  and  the  empire 
then  had  grown  up  together.  Christianity  had  been 
born  within  the  infant  imperial  organization.  It 
was  a  vital  and  aggressive  principle.  It  sought  to 
regenerate  the  empire  and  purify  its  life.  It  soon 
realized  that  it  was  weak  while  the  empire  was  strong, 
and  not  only  strong  but  hostile.  But,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  work  of  evangelization  went  steadily  on  surmount- 
ing  all    obstacles    and     the    situation    was    gradually 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  113 

reversed.  The  days  of  persecution  passed.  Con- 
stantine was  a  sagacious  statesman.  He  discerned 
the  signs  of  his  times.  He  saw  clearly  that  heathen- 
ism was  losing  ground  while  Christianity  was  rapidly 
gaining.  There  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  issue. 
Without  condemning  heathenism  he  recognized  Chris- 
tianity as  a  legal  religion  that  was  to  be  protected. 
This  step  was  the  beginning  of  what  was  to  become 
the  union  of  church  and  state.  And  so  as  the  empire 
learned  from  Christianity  and  ultimately  embraced  it, 
Christianity  for  its  weal  and  for  its  woe  learned 
from  the  empire.  As  the  empire  weakened  and  went 
to  pieces  from  moral,  political  and  economic  causes, 
Christianity  grew  strong  and  ambitious;  became 
worldly,  political  and  immoral.  The  facts  as  we 
proceed  will  abundantly  prove  the  truth  of  the  propo- 
sition. 

Constantine  was,  to  say  the  least,  far  from  being  an 
ideal  Christian.  He  believed  sincerely  in  the  provi- 
dential government  of  the  world;  he  saw  in  the  church 
elements  that  would  contribute  to  political  unity;  he 
saw  that  it  was  deeply  rooted  in  the  affections  of  a 
large  proportion  of  the  most  influential  and  thrifty 
people;  he  knew  little  about  the  dogmas  of  the 
church — things  which  he  could  not  understand.  But 
he  became  a  catechumen  and  received  instruction  for 
baptism,  which,  however,  was  postponed  until  337 — 
the  year  of  his  death.  Still  he  did  not  entirely  break 
with  paganism,  but  continued  pontifex  maximus  or 
high  priest  of  the  pagan  worship.  So  he  appears  to 
be  in  a  somewhat  undecided  state  of  mind  with  a 
strong  leaning  toward  Christianity.  This  inclination 
led  him  to  do  many  things  for  the  material  prosperity 
of  the  church. 


114    A  Short  History  of  the  Christinn  Church 

He  restored  to  the  church  her  worldly  possessions, 
such  as  churches  and  burial  places;  he  granted 
numerous  privileges  such  as  exemption  from  taxes, 
and  the  right  to  accept  gifts,  through  which  privilege 
the  church  grew  rich;  and  although  he  remained /<?////'- 
fiA:  maximns  he  allowed  only  Christian  worship  at 
Constantinople.  He  was  also  moved  by  a  great  zeal 
for  building,  which  led  him  to  build  churches  in 
various  parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  in  Nicomedia  and 
Constantinople. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  with  such  direct 
encouragement  Christianity  grew  at  an  enormous  rate, 
and  that  the  growth  was  far  from  healthy. 

This  could  hardly  have  been  otherwise.  The  multi- 
tude is  always  swayed  by  those  who  are  high  in  posi- 
tion; the  ambitious  are  mightily  influenced  by  the 
power  to  confer  favors,  and  will  ever  seek  to  keep 
themselves  in  harmony  with  that  power.  And  so  when 
the  court  became  Christian  it  was  but  natural  that 
worldlings  and  fanatics  should  "come  streaming  into 
the  church,"  having  entirely  lost  sight  of  the  nature 
and  purpose  of  Christianity,  if  they  had   ever  seen  it. 

C.     THE    PAGAN    REACTION* 

It  is  always  dangerous  both  to  individuals  and  to 
institutions  to  become  successful  and  popular.  From 
what  has  already  been  said,  it  is  evident  that  the  church 
has  entered  upon  a  period  extremely  dangerous  to  her 
spiritual  life.  She  is  to  take  in  many  members  who 
will  know  absolutely  nothing  of  her  principles;  she  is 
consequently  to  enter  upon  her  long  course  of  progres- 
sive corruption  which  is  to  wax  worse  and  worse  until 
the   cataclysm   of    the  Reformation  shall    come.      Her 

♦See  Alice  Gardner:  Julian  the  Philosopher. 


From  Constantine   to  Gregory  I  115 

enemies  will  make  a  careful  note  of  all  her  incon- 
sistencies and  hypocrisies,  and  use  them  with  telling 
effect. 

We  have  already  seen  how  Neoplatonism — the  last 
desperate  hope  of  paganism — had  its  origin  and  flour- 
ished in  the  third  century.  It  still  flourishes  and  has 
become  far  more  superstitious  under  the  influence  of 
Jamblicus  in  the  fourth  century.  It  still  represents  in 
a  feeble  v/ay  "the  glorious  classical  culture  of  Athens 
in  the  days  of  the  Academy  and  the  Lyceum."  The 
Christians  have  not  yet  developed  a  philosophical 
literature  of  their  own,  and  consequently  they  are 
dependent  for  this  culture  upon  the  Neoplatonic  teach- 
ers, many  of  whom  were  brilliant.  There  were 
accordingly  many  points  of  vital  connection  between 
the  two  opposing  sides. 

Neoplatonism  was  to  make  one  more  feeble  attempt 
to  rehabilitate  itself.  It  was  to  have  the  prestige  of 
an  emperor  for  its  leader.  Julian  was  a  nephew  of 
Constantine  the  Great.  He  had  had  a  Christian  train- 
ing; had  seen  the  inconsistencies  of  the  Christians, 
especially  of  his  cousins,  the  sons  of  Constantine;  had 
shrunk  from  the  austerity  and  unsensational  character 
of  the  Christianity  he  had  experienced  as  it  met  his 
"dreamy  temperament."  This  religion  therefore 
repelled  him.  On  the  contrary  "he  was  fascinated  by 
the  beauty  and  naturalness  of  the  Greek  classical  liter- 
ature." And  so  at  some  point  in  his  early  life  he 
secretly  renounced  Christianity,  and  during  his  student 
days  at  Athens  he  was  secretly  initiated  into  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries.  His  sympathies  with  paganism 
showed  themselves  immediately  when  he  became 
emperor. 

Julian  knew  that  paganism  was  still   largely  in  the 


116     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

majority.  In  Neoplatonism  he  found  a  philosophy- 
ready  to  hand.  His  purpose  was  to  revive  a  paganism 
that  should  be  highly  cultured,  strenuously  moral  and 
benevolent.  He  set  out  to  undo  all  that  Constantine 
had  done.  He  reopened  the  temples  for  pagan  wor- 
ship; he  required  the  Christians  to  rebuild  those  which 
they  had  destroyed — or  to  furnish  the  money  to  pay 
for  the  rebuilding;  and  to  restore  all  property  that 
had  been  taken  from  the  pagans — saying  that  he  ren- 
dered them  a  service  in  reducing  them  to  poverty;  he 
forbade  the  Christians  to  use  the  classical  literature 
in  their  schools  saying  that  their  pupils  ought  not  to 
come  under  heathen  influences;  he  forbade  Christians 
to  appear  as  public  teachers,  hoping  thus  to  injure 
their  influence. 

In  addition  to  all  this  Julian  wrote  a  treatise  enti- 
tled Kara  XpL(TTiavC)v  Aoyot.  He  followed  in  the  same 
lines  as  the  older  literary  opponents  especially  Por- 
phyry. He  regarded  Christianity  as  a  "contemptible 
aberration  of  the  age,"  as  a  "corrupt  Judaism  with 
some  shreds  of  Hellenism,"  as  "full  of  absurdities 
unsuitable  to  serve  as  the  foundation  of  the  higher 
education  of  the  spirit  and  character"  (Moeller). 

Nevertheless,  he  could  not  conceal  the  impressions 
that  Christianity  had  made  upon  him.  The  priests 
were  to  give  their  orations  in  purple  robes;  hymns 
were  to  be  sung  in  the  service;  priests  must  not  bring 
reproach  upon  their  calling  by  going  to  the  theater,  or 
the  wine  shops,  or  by  any  kind  of  disorderly  walk,  or 
by  pursuing  any  dishonorable  trade;  "they  were  on 
the  other  hand  to  occupy  themselves  with  pious  books 
(Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle,  the  School  of  Zeno)  and 
daily  to  exercise  their  duties  of  worship  along  with 
their  families." 


From.  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  117 

If  Julian  had  lived  it  is  probable  that  his  opposition 
would  have  amounted  to  persecution.  But  in  a  battle 
with  the  Persians  in  363,  after  he  had  reigned  only 
about  a  year  and  a  half  he  was  wounded  unto  death. 
It  is  reported  that  his  last  words  were:  "Thou  hast 
conquered,  Galilean." 

In  the  death  of  Julian,  paganism  lost  the  last  great 
champion  who  was  to  appear  in  its  behalf.  It  was 
still  strong  in  Alexandria,  in  Rome,  and  in  Athens. 

Jovian,  the  successor  of  Julian,  cautiously  inclined 
back  to  the  position  of  Constantine  and  his  sons,  and 
the  war  against  paganism  was  carried  on  with  increas- 
ing effectiveness  by  emperor  after  emperor.  Gratian, 
375-383,  was  the  first  emperor  to  renounce  the  title  of 
pontifex  maximiis.  The  work  of  Constantine  was 
carried  much  farther  by  Theodosius  I.,  379-395.  So 
more  and  more  the  spirit  of  Christianity  permeated 
and  controlled  all  the  empire,  and  at  last,  in  529, 
Justinian  closed  the  Neoplatonic  school  at  Athens,  and 
paganism  disappeared  from  the  world  as  a  controlling 
element  of  culture. 

D.    THE  PERILS  OF  THE  UNION  OF  CHURCH  AND  STATE 

That  organic  connection  with  the  state  was  unfortu- 
nate for  the  church  has  already  appeared.  Politics  is 
a  blight  that  withers  everything  it  touches.  It  is  not 
possible,  even  in  the  nineteenth  century,  to  keep  it 
entirely  out  of  churches  that  have  no  connection  with 
the  state.  Much  more  is  the  danger  when  church  and 
state  are  so  closely  connected  as  to  be  but  two  sides  of 
the  same  thing.  The  empire  of  Constantine  and  his 
successors  was  the  same  empire  that  had  persecuted 
Christianity.  Although  Christianity  by  its  own 
intrinsic   worth   and   force   had    conquered    paganism, 


118    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  commanded  the  respect  and  protection  of  the 
empire,  the  emperors  did  not  see  the  facts  as  they 
were.  They  would  endure  no  superior,  or  brook  no 
equal.  They  preposterously  claimed  that  they  had 
set  the  church  free — entirely  ignoring  the  fact  that  it 
was  only  true  policy  for  them  to  do  so.  Since, 
therefore,  they  had  rendered  the  church  so  great  a 
service  it  was  but  right  and  proper  that  they  should 
control  the  church. 
We  may  then  note: 

(a)  That  with  freedom  from  persecution,  with  honor, 
and  with  prosperity  came,  as  always,  greed  and 
ambition. 

(b)  That  the  state  had  freed  the  church,  as  it 
claimed,  and  now  it  should  rule  the  church.  Specif- 
ically it  claimed: 

1st.   The  right  to  administer  ecclesiastical  law. 

2d.  The  right  to  summon  general  councils  and  con- 
firm their  action. 

3d.  The  right  to  appoint  bishops  to  the  most  impor- 
tant episcopal  sees. 

4th.  The  right  to  supreme  jurisdiction  in  the  spiritual 
courts. 

5th.  A  determining  voice  in  all  dogmatic  contro- 
versies.* 

When  we  look  at  these  demands  we  can  readily  see 
that  if  they  were  all  granted  the  church  would  be 
completely  enthralled.  And  while  these  claims  were 
to  a  considerable  extent  made  good — the  church  was 
not  fully  asleep  to  the  dangers,  and  we  have  the 
beginnings  of  the  conflict  between  church  and  empire 
that  is  to  constitute  one  of  the  principal  features  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

*See  Sohm:  O.  C.  //.,  p.  46. 


From  Constantine  to   Gregory  I  119 

B.    Church   Extension 

During  the  first  three  centuries  the  leaven  of  Chris- 
tianity had  spread  far  and  wide  through  the  empire. 
In  the  north  churches  had  been  established  at  Treves, 
Metz,  and  Cologne.  But  in  the  next  three  centuries 
the  empire  is  to  be  overrun  by  barbarian  hordes  who 
are  to  be  subdued  for  Christianity  and  civilization  by 
those  whom  they  shall  conquer.  These  new  peoples 
have  great  depth  of  nature;  they  are  children  of  the 
forest  and  so  averse  to  indoor  life;  they  are  pro- 
foundly earnest  and  serious;  they  are  loyal  to  their 
leaders  and  their  tribes;  they  have  a  strong  love  for 
freedom  and  a  lofty  sense  of  personal  dignity.  Such 
natures  are,  by  their  very  constitution,  peculiarly  fitted 
to  appreciate  the  deepest  truths  of  the  Gospel.  It 
would,  accordingly,  be  impossible  to  overestimate  the 
importance  of  their  conversion.  For  the  destinies  of 
future  ages  lay  wrapped  up  in  their  unpolished  exte- 
riors. 

The  Goths  were  the  vanguard  of  this  great  barbarian 
wave.  They  were  converted  to  the  Arian  form  of 
Christianity  through  prisoners  whom  they  carried 
from  Cappadocia.  Their  famous  apostle  was  Ulphilas 
(313-383).  He  was  born  of  Christian  parents  and  was 
very  active  religiously.  The  work  upon  which  his 
fame  chiefly  rests,  is  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  the  Gothic,  for  which  he  invented  an  alphabet. 
Ulphilas  was  conciliatory  as  to  the  Nicene  creed,  but 
was  branded  as  a  heretic  and  this  resulted  in  his 
death. 

The  Vandals  were  converted  to  Arian  Christianity 
by  the  Goths,  who  had  been  much  softened  in  their 
cruelty.  So  that  when  Alaric  captured  Rome  he 
commanded   the  churches  to  be  spared.     But  in   the 


120    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

case  of  the  Vandals  it  was  far  otherwise — as  was  shown 
in  their  treatment  of  the  Catholics  in  North  Africa. 

Much  more  important  was  the  conversion  of  the 
Franks  which  began  with  Clovis  in  496.  Previously 
to  this  time  Arianism  prevailed  in  western  Europe,  but 
with  the  conquests  of  the  Franks  the  change  to 
Catholicism  was  completed.  The  principal  result  of 
the  Frankish  conquest  and  conversion  was  the  Galli- 
can  church  which  gave  to  the  world  Gregory  of  Tours — 
"the  Frankish  Herodotus"  (540-594). 

That  Christianity  went  into  Britain  very  early  we 
have  already  learned.  That  during  this  period  it  had 
a  Scriptural  theology,  was  troubled  with  Pelagianism, 
and  considerably  extended  its  influence,  is  known, 
although  the  records  are  scanty.  But  with  the  Saxon 
invasions  of  449  a  new  political  and  social  order  begins 
and  the  way  is  prepared  for  the  coming  of  Augustine. 

C.    Christian   Thought   and   Literature,    and    the 

NiCENE    AND    PoST-NiCENE    FATHERS 
LITERATURE 
Cheetham:  C/imr k  Historj/ /'Ea-rW  Veriod,*'  pp.  213-51. 
Harnack:  Hist,  of  Dogma,  portions  of  Vols.  ILV,  in- 
clusive. 

Loofs:  Leitfaden,  pp.  146-188. 

Seeberg:  Lchrbiich  der  Dogme?igeschichte ,  Vol.   I,   pp. 

157-231- 

"The  Seven  Ecumenical  Councils,"  in  Nicene  a?id 
Post-Nicc7ic  Fathers,  Vol.  XIV. 

Early  Churcli  History:  a  series  of  lectures  on  the 
Church  Fathers,  from  Ignatius  and  Polycarp  to  Augus- 
tine. 

The  influence  of  classical  culture,  very  marked  dur- 
ing the  fourth  century,  declines   in  the  fifth.     It  has 


From   Constantine  to  Gregory  I  121 

been  seen  how  in  the  third  century  Clement  and 
Origen  found  in  Greek  philosophy  and  literature 
"traces  of  the  ever-present  Word."  Their  enthusiasm, 
less  intense,  passed  on  to  their  immediate  successors 
who  appreciated  the  beauty  and  the  perfection  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  classics.  This  is  seen  especially  in 
Jerome  who  was  so  capable  of  such  appreciation.  But 
in  his  breast  there  grew  up  the  conviction  that 
between  classical  culture  and  Christianity  there  was  a 
great  gulf  fixed.  There  arose  accordingly  within  him 
a  conflict  in  which  his  distorted  view  of  Christianity 
got  the  better  of  him  and  he  suffered  deep  remorse 
for  the  zeal  he  had  felt  for  heathen  culture. 

It  was  seen,  too,  in  Augustine  who  spoke  dis- 
paragingly of  the  "wine  of  error"  that  was  served  to 
young  Christians  in  the  elegant  diction  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  "But  despite  this  feeling,"  says 
Cheetham,  "we  are  conscious  that  Christian  literature 
shines  with  the  evening  glow  of  classical  culture  up  to 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century." 

After  this  there  is  a  marked  literary  decline.  Men 
cease  to  be  original;  they  become  "compilers  and  epit- 
omizers";  they  have  a  contempt  for  style;  and  about 
514  Pope  Hormisdas  is  reputed  to  have  published  a 
list  of  books  that  Christians  must  not  read. 

This  is  the  declension  that  precedes  the  bloom  of 
the  "great  literature  of  modern  Europe."  But  with 
the  declension  of  general  culture  there  always  goes  the 
declension  of  theological  thought.  Nevertheless,  the 
times  are  big  with  consequences.  Distinctions  which 
have  hitherto  been  vague  are  now  to  become  sharply 
defined.  These  distinctions  are  all  more  or  less  valid. 
The  truth  that  they  contain  can  be  purged  of  error  and 
clarified  only  by  interaction  and  conflict.     That  any 


122    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

one  man  or  group  of  men  could  grasp  all  the  truth  and 
eliminate  all  the  error  is  too  much  to  expect.  We 
therefore  have  schools  each  one  of  which  emphasizes 
one  side  of  truth  and  in  doing  so  minimizes  other  sides 
equally  important.  This  is  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  all  schools — philosophical,  theological  and  scien- 
tific. The  student  who  comes  to  understand  this 
important  fact  very  early  in  his  course  will  be  secured 
against  extreme  and  one-sided  positions  which  he 
would  otherwise  take. 

But  while  these  schools  are  marked  by  strong  indi- 
viduality we  are  to  remember  that  individuality  is 
rarely  complete  separation.  It  is  rather  based  upon 
distinction,  and  distinction  implies  fundamental  unity. 
For  instance,  historians  always  tell  us  that  the  east  is 
given  to  speculation  and  theory,  while  the  west  is 
concerned  with  the  practical;  that  the  east  is  inclined 
to  be  radical,  while  the  west  is  inclined  to  be  con- 
servative; that  the  east  stands  for  the  utmost  freedom 
while  the  west  stands  for  authority.  But  none  of  these 
statements  can  be  taken  absolutely.  It  is  simply  a 
question  of  emphasis.  Both  the  east  and  the  west  are 
interested  in  all  truth,  but  the  east  is  prevailingly 
speculative  while  the  west  is  prevailingly  practical. 

We  should  mention: 


A.     THE    EASTERN    SCHOOLS 

The  ScJiool  of  A7itioch 

This  school  first  came  into  prominence  under  Lucian 
about  270,  and  henceforward  became  a  rival  of  the 
Alexandrian  school  which  had  been  brought  to  such 
eminence  by  Clement  and  Origen.  That  it  got  its 
first  impulse  from  Alexandrian  theological  thinking  is 


From  Const antine  to  Gregory  I  123 

certain.  But  the  school  at  Antioch  differed  from  that 
of  Alexandria  on  a  very  fundamental  matter.  It 
rejected  the  Alexandrian  view  of  allegorical  interpre- 
tation, and  put  the  emphasis  mainly  upon  grammatico- 
historical  interpretation.  It  is  only  by  this  method 
that  the  Scriptures  can  be  understood,  and  understand- 
ing is  basal.  It  is  thus  seen  how  the  Antiochene 
school  gave  great  prominence  to  reason  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Scriptures,  and  how  the  humanity  of 
Christ  received  attention  too  often  at  the  expense  of 
His  divinity. 

Among  the  great  men  of  this  school  should  be  men- 
tioned especially: 

Eusebius  of  Emesa,  (?)-36o. 
^John  Chrysostom,  c.  347-407. 

Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  350-386. 

\Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  393-428. 
->Theodoret,  c.  390-457. 

The  School  of  Edessa 
Oriental  in  all  its  main  features. 

The  New  Alexajidrian  School 

This  school  has  undergone  important  changes  since 
the  preceding  period.  Tradition  and  authority  are 
much  more  prominent,  and  as  the  school  at  Antioch 
dwelt  especially  upon  the  human  nature  of  the  Lord, 
so  the  school  at  Alexandria  was  inclined  to  put 
especial  stress  upon  His  divinity. 

The  steps  in  the  transition  are  represented  in  three 
men,  as  follows:  "Eusebius  of  Caesarea  may  be  said  to 
represent  the  old  school;  Athanasius  the  transition; 
while  Cyril  is  the  most  conspicuous  example  of  the 
new." 


124    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Among  the  great  men  of  the  school  are  to  be  men- 
tioned: 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea.     c.  270-341. 
Athanasius.     c.  246-373. 
Didymus.     c.  310-395. 
"^  Epiphanius.     c.  315-403. 
The  three  great  Cappadocians: 

■^  Basil.     330-379- 
~^  Gregory  Nazianzen.     325-389. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa.     335-395  (?) 
Paulinus  of  Nola.      358-431. 
Leo  I.     440-461. 

B.     THE    THEOLOGY    OF    THE    WEST 

The  schools  of  the  east  had  a  large  influence  on  the 
western  theology.  But  the  western  theologians  were 
more  particularly  interested  in  the  more  practical 
questions  of  church  organization,  salvation  by  the 
grace  of  God,  and  the  problems  that  grew  out  of  such 
questions.  The  spirit  of  the  old  empire  passed  into 
the  Latin  church. 

The  influence  of  Origen  is  seen  in  Hilary  of 
Poitiers,  Jerome,  and  Rufinus;  that  of  Athanasius  in 
Ambrose  and  Augustine,  and  Leo  L;  while  the  school 
of  Antioch  inspired  a  group  of  theologians  in  the  south 
of  Gaul. 

The  great  men  of  the  west  are: 

Hilary  of  Poitiers,     c.  320-366. 
"^Ambrose,     c.  340-397. 
-Jerome,     c.  346-420. 
Rufinus.     c.  345-410. 
Augustine.     354-430. 


From  C ottstantine  to  Gregory  I  125 

D.    Doctrinal  Developments  and  Controversies 

A.     DEVELOPMENTS 

Within  the  body  of  the  church  there  is  some  shifting 
of  opinion,  and  some  new  ideas  emerge  during  this 
period. 

There  is  progress  in  the  doctrine  of  catholicity. 
According  to  Augustine  faith  precedes  knowledge. 
He  says  if  he  were  not  moved  by  the  authority  of  the 
church  he  would  not  believe  in  the  Gospel.  The  fact 
that  the  church  vouches  for  the  canon  is  quite  sufficient 
for  him.  The  church  is,  of  course,  the  infallible  inter- 
preter of  the  Scriptures.  The  see  of  Peter  is  at  Rome. 
As  to  the  "rock"  he  at  least  once  makes  it  Christ,  but 
sometimes  also  Peter.  With  this  growth  of  arbitrary 
church  authority  the  saving  critical  spirit  lost  its 
power.  This  was  especially  true  when  such  a  man  as 
Augustine  was  yielding  to  ecclesiastical  authority. 

This  seems  to  show  that  Augustine  was  wavering. 
Outside  the  church  there  is  no  salvation,  unbaptized 
infants  are  lost. 

The  doctrine  of  purgatory  originated  in  a  suggestion 
of  Augustine  and  the  doctrine  of  an  intermediate  state 
is  changed  into  a  fixed  belief. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  undergoes  modi- 
fications and  the  Lord's  presence  in  the  emblems 
begins  to  be  taken  as  literally  true.  The  same  tend- 
ency is  also  seen  in  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  body. 

The  doctrine  that  at  last  all  shall  be  saved  was 
taught  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia,  but  it  was  effectually  overcome  through  the 
influence  of  Augustine.* 

*Fisher,  pp.  142-3. 


126     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Augustine's  general  theological  system,  so  far  as  he 
had  a  theological  system,  is  found  in  the  EiicJiiridioii 
ad  Laurejitinm.  It  touches  upon  the  main  points  of 
Christian  doctrine,  such  as  sin,  grace,  predestination; 
the  objects  of  faith,  hope  and  love;  the  Holy  Spirit 
and  the  resurrection. 

In  Augustine  we  have  a  great  confusion  of  truth  and 
error.  Many  of  his  sayings  are  ultimate  statements 
of  fundamental  truths,  as:  "Not  what  one  knows  and 
says,  decides,  but  what  one  loves."  "It  is  a  good 
thing  to  me  to  cleave  to  God."  "Thou  hast  made  us 
for  Thyself  and  our  soul  is  restless  until  it  rests  in 
Thee' '  ( Confessions) . 

It  is  easy  to  understand  how  a  man  whose  writings 
are  full  of  gems  like  these  would  dominate  Christian 
thought  for  many  hundreds  of  years. 

Seeberg  admirably  puts  the  case  when  he  says:  "He 
had  the  creative  power  of  the  reformer,  but  lacked  the 
gift  of  destroying.  In  this  way  we  understand  the 
crowd  of  contradictions  and  opposing  tendencies  in 
his  doctrines."* 

B.     CONTROVERSIES 
LITERATURE 
Hefele:  History  of  the  Church  Councils ,  ^^i-j^'j ,  two  vols. 

The  period  has  intense  interest  because  of  the  doc- 
trinal controversies  that  agitated  it.  It  has  been  seen 
how,  in  the  preceding  period.  Christian  thinkers  were 
obliged  to  put  their  ideas  into  scientific  form.  There 
had  been  some  noble  attempts  at  the  formulation  of 
Christian  doctrines.  But  definition  is  nearly  always 
dangerous — especially  when  the  subject  to  be  defined 

*For  a  good  summary  of  the  Enchiridion,  see  Seeberg  :  Dog- 
me7tgeschichte,  Vol.  I,  p.  300  ff. 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  127 

is  abstruse.  There  consequently  began  almost  imme- 
diately to  be  wide  differences  among  Christian  think- 
ers themselves.  These  divergences  in  several 
important  cases  led  to  heresy  and  schism.  Moreover, 
new  problems  were  constantly  arising  and  demanding 
prompt  and  close  attention.  It  is  with  some  of  these 
fundamental  questions  that  we  are  concerned  in  this 
section. 

By  the  close  of  the  second  century  it  had  been  found 
expedient  to  entrust  the  general  direction  of  the 
churches  to  synods.  These  synods  grew  in  importance 
and  authority  all  through  the  third  century — and  were 
large  or  small  as  the  questions  to  be  settled  were  easy 
or  difficult.  Previous  to  the  time  of  Constantine  all 
these  synods  or  assemblies  were  restricted  within  the 
provinces.  But  after  the  conversion  of  the  emperor  it 
became  possible  to  have  a  universal,  or  oecumenical 
council  ('H  oLKovfxevq  y^),  and  it  is  in  these  oecumenical 
councils  that  the  great  fundamental  doctrines  of 
the  church  were  to  be  discussed  and  formulated  by 
bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  empire. 

Five  of  these  councils  occurred  during  our  period, 
as  follows:  Nicaea  I.,  325;  Constantinople  I.,  381; 
Ephesus,  431;  Chalcedon,  451;  Constantinople  II.,  558. 
Each  of  these  councils  had  one  main  issue  that  occu- 
pied most  of  its  attention.  These  issues  will  be  men- 
tioned in  the  course  of  the  narrative. 

The  Ariaji  Coiitroversy^ 

As  soon  as  Christians  began  to  think,  the  problem 
of   Christ's    divinity   arose    and   became    exceedingly 

*See,  in  addition  to  Mehlhorn  and  Farrar,  Paine  :  A  Critical 
History  of  the  Evolution  of  Trinitariafiism,  etc.  Very  radical, 
Stanley  :    The  History  of  the  Eastern  Church. 


128    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

perplexing.  It  was  a  real  problem  and  could  not 
easily  be  disposed  of.  Moreover,  upon  its  correct 
solution  depended  the  whole  future  of  the  church. 

All  of  these  errors  arose  from  the  inability  of  earnest 
men  to  see  the  entire  situation.  They  could  see  only 
one  side,  or  one  side  too  exclusively.  Their  undue 
insistence  upon  the  sides  that  they  saw  led  them  to 
minimize  or  entirely  ignore  other  sides  equally  if  not 
more  important.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  Arian 
and  other  controversies  of  this  period.  For  example: 
The  Sabellians,  in  their  zeal  for  the  unity  of  God,  were 
led  to  overlook  his  tri-personality — thus  going  to  one 
extreme;  but  the  Arians  held  to  the  real  sonship  of 
Christ,  but  denied  his  co-essential  deity — thus  going 
to  another  extreme.* 

The  doctrines  of  Arius  grew  out  of  Sabellianism 
through  Paul  of  Samosata — a  dynamic  Sabellian,  and 
his  pupil  Lucian  of  Antioch,  who  was  a  teacher  of 
Arius. 

The  controversy  arose  over  the  difficulties  in  the 
thought  that:  "The  son  of  God  who  became  man  and 
suffered  the  humiliation  of  the  flesh  was  to  be  con- 
ceived as  distinct  from  God  and  yet  equal  to  God." 

Various  attempts  at  solution  had  been  made.  It  was 
suggested  that  Christ  was  only  a  man  specially 
endowed  with  holiness  and  miraculous  power.  Sabel- 
lianism regarded  the  trinity  as  three  manifestations  of 
one  God — denying  the  real  distinction  of  the  Son  from 
the  F'ather.  Again  it  was  said  that  Christ  was  a 
creature,  spiritual  indeed  and  the  first  of  all  created 
beings.  This  was  subordinationism.  It  made  Christ 
an  intermediate  being. 

That  the  controversy  should  break  out  in  Alexandria 

*  Bindley:  (Ecumenical  Docs,  of  the  Faith,  p.  7. 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  129 

was  to  be  expected.  This  old  university  town,  almost 
from  the  beginning  of  its  history,  had  been  the  tryst- 
ing  place  of  thinkers — Pagan,  Jewish,  Gnostic,  and 
Christian.  It  was  in  Alexandria — the  cosmopolitan 
city — that  all  the  thought  and  enterprise  of  the  east 
and  the  west  met  and  mingled.  It  has  been  truly  said 
that  from  this  city  there  issued  forth: 

"Mellifluous  streams  which  watered  all  the  schools 
Of  Academies,  old  and  new,  with  those 
Surnamed  Peripatetics,  and  the  school 
Of  Epicureans,  and  the  Stoic  severe." 

Nothing  in  a  city  like  Alexandria  would  be  too 
sacred  for  the  most  pitiless  dissection.  Everything 
would  be  expected  either  to  be  overthrown  or  to  stand 
by  its  inherent  almightiness. 

Such  an  environment  was  exactly  suited  to  develop 
an  Athanasius.  The  renown  of  the  city  would  attract 
an  Arius — and  the  whole  atmosphere  would  produce 
minds  bent  on  making  the  nicest  distinctions. 

Fully  to  appreciate  the  controversy  it  is  necessary 
to  glance  at  the  general  historical  situation.  We  are 
in  the  opening  decades  of  the  fourth  century.  In  the 
century  just  preceding  the  old  empire  had  been  divided 
and  subdivided.  In  a  series  of  bloody  wars  between 
306  and  324  Constantine  overcame  all  opposition  and 
united  the  whole  empire  under  his  own  rule.  But  his 
dominions  were  full  of  conflicting  interests,  racial, 
political  and  religious.  Like  all  great  statesmen  his 
supreme  object  was  the  unification  of  his  empire.  He 
had  seen  Christianity  wax  and  heathenism  wane.  He 
understood  that  Christianity  was  to  be  the  religion  of 
the  future.  We  may  grant  the  genuineness  of  his 
conversion  and  still  see  distinctly  how  he  would  recog- 
nize in  the  religion  of  Christ  a  tremendous  agency  for 


130    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

moulding  diversified  humanity  into  a  compact  and 
powerful  political  organization. 

His  course  in  issuing  the  edict  of  Milan,  and  after- 
wards, was  in  the  main,  such  a  course  as  any  sincere 
and  sagacious  statesman  must  have  pursued.  It  was 
just  at  this  critical  juncture  in  the  emperor's  career, 
when  he  was  looking  with  such  hope  into  the  future 
and  expecting  so  much  from  his  new  religion,  that  the 
Arian  controversy  arose,  and  that  the  agency  upon 
which  he  had  built  such  hopes  threatened  to  divide 
against  itself. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  more  particularly 
to  this  controversy.  It  began,  as  has  been  seen,  in 
the  cosmopolitan,  university  town  of  Alexandria.  The 
issue  was  respecting  the  person  of  the  Son  of  God. 
Some  time  in  318  or  319  Bishop  Alexander  preached  a 
sermon  on  "The  Great  Mystery  of  the  Trinity  in 
Unity."  Arius  was  present  and  objected  to  the  dis- 
course on  the  ground  that  "it  tended  to  obliterate  the 
distinction  of  the  three  persons  in  the  Godhead — 
and  therein  savored  of  Sabellianism." 

From  this  point  the  development  of  the  views  of 
Arius  was  very  rapid.  He  soon  reached  the  point  at 
which  he  regarded  the  Son  as  a  creature,  and  with  this 
advance  was  left  behind  the  doctrine  that  the  Son  is 
co-eternal  and  co-essential  with  the  Father.  The 
name  Father,  he  said,  implies  priority — the  Son  must 
be  subordinate,  there  was  when  he  was  not  (*Hv  ttotI  ore 
ovK  ^v).  There  could  therefore  be  no  identity  of  nature 
between  Father  and  Son. 

Moreover  Arius  was  able  to  quote  Scripture.  The 
Old  Testament  was  rigidly  monotheistic.  "The  Lord 
our  God  is  one  God." 

From  the  New  Testament  he  quoted  such  verses  as: 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  131 

"My  Father  is  greater    than   I." — "Who   is   the   first 
born  of  every  creature." 

In  reply  it  has  been  said  that:  "The  strength  of 
Arius  in  dialectic  lay  in  the  necessary  shadows  and 
imperfections  of  finite  language  to  express  infinite 
realities."  The  words  "Father"  and  "Son"  could  not 
be  taken  in  their  ordinary  material  sense. 

Athanasius  quoted  Scripture  as  follows:  "This  is  my 
beloved  Son."  "The  word  was  God."  "All  things 
were  made  by  him."  He  showed  that  Arius  had  mis- 
interpreted his  texts.  He  crowded  Arius  into  the 
dilemma  that  Christ  must  either  be  of  the  same  sub- 
stance with  God — or  a  creature.  In  the  first  case 
there  is  no  contention,  in  the  second  Christ  cannot  be 
worshiped. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  bring  Arius  back  into 
the  fold — but  all  were  futile.  At  last  he  was  excom- 
municated. The  controversy  raged  and  spread.  In 
321  a  large  synod  was  held  in  Alexandria  and  the 
teachings  of  Arius  were  condemned.  But  the  con- 
demnation availed  little.  Arianism  extended  far  and 
wide.  Within  three  years  the  leaven  of  Arianism  had 
spread  through  all  Christendom.  It  reached  not  only 
the  educated,  but  also  the  multitude  and  was  the  sub- 
ject of  warm  discussion  among  all  classes.  It  is  said 
that:  "The  very  theaters  of  Byzantium  began  to  ring 
with  jokes  on  the  divisions  of  Christians." 

Now  we  can  easily  understand  how  this  serious  and 
widespread  controversy  would  distress  the  emperor 
Constantine  whose  chief  concern  was  to  secure  unity 
and  peace  throughout  his  empire.  As  soon  as  he  could 
find  leisure  he  wrote  an  impatient  letter  to  Alexander 
and  Arius.  He  reminded  them  that,  anxious  as  he 
had  been  for  unanimity  and  peace,  and  much  as  he 


132    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

had  expected  from  Christianity  in  realizing  his  ideal, 
he  had  already  been  vexed  by  the  Donatist  schism  in 
Africa — and  now  "there  is  a  new  discord.  And  there 
is  no  real  ground  for  it.  The  subjects  in  dispute  are 
trivial.  I  offer  myself  as  an  arbiter.  You,  Alexander, 
asked  the  opinion  of  your  presbyters  on  a  question  of 
little  importance;  and  you,  Arius,  have  propounded 
an  opinion  which  you  ought  never  to  have  held,  or,  at 
any  rate,  to  have  uttered.  Hence  has  come  this  divi- 
sion and  faction.  I,  your  fellow  servant,  urge  you  to 
forgive  each  other  equally  for  the  unguarded  question 
and  the  inconsiderate  answer.  It  is  a  pity  that  the 
question  was  ever  raised.  No  Christianity  requires 
the  investigation  of  such  subjects;  they  arise  from  the 
disputatious  cavils  of  ill-employed  leisure.  Few  can 
understand  these  difficult  matters  in  which  there  ought 
to  be  mutual  tolerance.  In  reality  you  are  agreed. 
Return  to  your  former  charity  and  restore  to  me  my 
quiet  days  and  tranquil  nights  or  you  will  force  me  to 
weep  and  to  despair  of  any  personal  peace.  Your  dis- 
cords alone  prevent  me  from  paying  a  visit  to  the 
east."* 

This  curious  letter  undoubtedly  shows  the  benevolent 
yearning  of  a  statesman.  But  it  betrays  how  little  of 
a  philosopher  or  a  theologian  the  emperor  really  was. 
Evidently  he  did  not  know  that  men  who  are  born  to 
investigate  and  to  think  will  do  so  at  all  hazards. 

The  letter  was  sent  to  Alexandria  by  Hosius  late  in 
324.  We  do  not  need  to  be  told  that  it  did  no  good. 
It  probably  widened  the  breach  rather  than  otherwise. 
Another  council  was  held  and  Arius  was  again  con- 
demned. 

*For  the  entire  letter,  see  Socrates:  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory, I,  7. 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  133 

It  now  became  evident  to  the  emperor  that  this 
great  disturbance,  with  its  center  in  Alexandria,  but 
which  had  extended  itself  to  all  the  nerve  centers  of 
the  Christian  world,  could  be  settled  only  by  a  univer- 
sal and  representative  council  of  bishops  from  the 
whole  church. 

Hitherto  an  oecumenical  council  had  never  been  pos- 
sible. But  now  the  persecutions  are  over;  Chris- 
tianity is  triumphant;  the  emperor  is  a  Christian;  all 
things  are  favorable;  the  call  is  issued.  For  many 
reasons  it  is  not  thought  best  to  hold  the  council  at 
Alexandria,  but  at  Nicaea  in  Bythinia,  some  twenty- 
five  miles  southeast  of  Byzantium.  The  members  of 
the  council  are  to  be  the  guests  of  the  emperor.  Soon 
a  stir  is  noticed  along  all  the  roads  leading  toward 
Nicaea.  To  quote  from  Stanley's  vivid  description: 
"On  all  the  great  lines  of  communication — straight  as 
arrows — were  to  be  seen  the  bishops — each  with  his 
two  presbyters  and  three  slaves.  They  traveled  partly 
in  public  carriages,  partly  on  horses,  asses  and  mules, 
provided  for  the  purpose — both  for  riding  and  carry- 
ing baggage."  Eusebius  speaks  of  them  as  coming  as 
fast  as  they  could  run,  in  almost  a  frenzy  of  excite- 
ment and  enthusiasm.  For  perhaps  three  weeks  they 
continued  to  arrive  until  the  entire  gathering — 
attendants  and  all — numbered  probably  two  thousand. 

The  composition  of  the  council  is  very  interesting. 
It  is  generally  agreed  that  there  were  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  bishops.  Of  these  three  hundred  and  ten 
were  from  the  east — only  eight  from  the  west.  The 
bishop  of  Rome  being  too  old  to  make  the  journey  was 
represented  by  Victor  and  Vincent.  But  the  greatest 
of  the  western  bishops  and  one  of  the  greatest  men  in 
the  council  was  Hosius  of  Cordova,  who,  for  the  west, 


134    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

was  to  the  emperor  what  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  was  for 
the  east. 

Among  these  bishops  were  the  old  and  the  young, 
the  learned  and  the  unlearned — from  city,  from  forest 
and  from  cav^es  in  the  mountains.  Many  of  them 
came  bearing  the  marks  of  Diocletian's  persecution, 
with  eyeless  sockets,  scarred  faces,  twisted  and 
withered  limbs,  paralyzed  hands.  Such  an  assembly 
had  never  met  before.  It  was  a  momentous  day  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  They  were  good  men — many  of 
them  were  great  men— but  they  had  their  limitations. 
They  had  suffered  for  the  faith.  They  had  deeply- 
rooted  convictions  and  they  were  ready  to  stand  for 
their  convictions  to  the  bitter  end.  Many  of  them 
had  grievances  against  their  brethren,  and  they  did  not 
hesitate  to  make  their  grievances  known. 

After  numerous  preliminary  meetings  and  heated 
debates,  in  which  the  heathen  philosophers  sometimes 
took  part,  Constantine  opened  the  council  June  19th, 
325.  In  his  speech  he  said:  "It  has,  my  friends,  been 
my  highest  wish  to  enjoy  your  sacred  company,  and, 
having  obtained  this,  I  confess  my  thankfulness  to  the 
King  of  all.  .  .  .  To  me  far  worse  than  any  war  or 
battle  is  the  civil  war  of  the  church  of  God.  .  .  .  As, 
then,  by  the  assent  and  co-operation  of  a  higher 
power,  I  have  gained  my  victories  over  my  enemies,  I 
thought  that  nothing  remained  but  to  give  God  thanks, 
and  to  rejoice  with  those  who  have  been  delivered  by 
us.  But  since  I  learn  of  your  divisions,  contrary  to  all 
expectations,  I  gave  the  report  my  first  consideration. 
.  .  .  I  rejoice  at  the  mere  sight  of  your  assembly;  but 
the  moment  that  I  shall  consider  the  chief  fulfillment 
of  my  prayers  will  be  when  I  see  you  all  joined 
together  in  heart  and  soul,   and  determining  on  one 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  135 

peaceful  harmony  for  all,  which  it  should  well  become 
you  who  are  consecrated  to  God  to  preach  to 
others.   .   .   ." 

But  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  differences  were 
radical.  It  was  no  mere  war  of  words.  The  two 
parties  could  not  agree  in  the  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  orthodox  claimed  that  the  Arians  explained 
Scripture  "in  an  unreal  sense."  It  devolved  upon 
them,  therefore,  to  show  what  the  real  sense  was,  and 
so  in  spite  of  themselves  they  were  forced  into  close 
definition.  There  must  be  some  standard  of  faith — a 
creed  which  should  be  subscribed  to  as  a  test  of  dis- 
cipleship  and  orthodoxy. 

Previously  there  had  been  a  Rule  of  Faith  and  it  had 
taken  different  forms  in  different  localities.  Knowl- 
edge of  these  formularies  is  very  meager,  but  that  they 
existed  and  that  some  of  them  had  reached  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  perfection  is  known.  It  was  not 
to  be  expected  therefore  that  the  new  creed  would  be 
de  ?iovo  production. 

When  the  council  had  settled  to  work  the  first  creed 
that  was  proposed  came  from  the  Arian  party,  and  was 
signed  by  eighteen  bishops.  It  has  not  been  preserved 
— but  it  was  greeted  with  a  storm  of  disapproval — was 
torn  to  pieces  and  all  but  two  of  its  signers  deserted 
Arius  who  disappeared  from  the  council. 

The  next  creed  came  from  Eusebius  of  Caesarea.  It 
was  the  creed,  he  said,  which  he  had  learned  in  his 
boyhood.  He  had  taught  it  all  his  life.  It  was 
approved  by  the  emperor,  and  it  accorded  with  his 
own  view  that  divine  things  cannot  be  precisely 
described  in  human  language.  It  met  with  strong  favor 
and  became  the  basis  of  the  new  creed.  But  when  it 
was  found  that  the  Arians  were  willing  to  sign  it  sus- 


136    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

picion  was  aroused.  If  an  Arian  could  sign  it  there 
must  be  something  wrong  with  it.  They  must  have  a 
creed  that  no  Arian  could  sign. 

A  letter  from  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  furnished  the 
word.  He  said:  "Those  who  say  that  the  Son  is 
uncreated  have  to  say  that  He  is  of  one  substance 
(ofxoovaLov)  with  the  Father.     This  is  absurd." 

Now  the  fact  that  to  be  of  one  substance  with  the 
Father  was  absurd  to  the  Arians  made  the  one  thing 
lacking  to  the  orthodox. 

When  it  was  proposed  it  met  with  a  storm  of  oppo- 
sition from  the  Arians.  To  them  it  was  "unscriptural," 
"heretical,"  "materialistic,"  "Sabellian,"  "Mon- 
tanistic."  These  objections  were  all  met  by  Atha- 
nasius  and  the  orthodox,  and  o/xoovVios — or  of  one  sub- 
stance— became  the  decisive  word,  and  Hosius  of  Cor- 
dova arose  and  announced  that  the  creed  had  been 
completed. 

The  Nicene  creed  in  its  original  form  reads  as  fol- 
lows: 

"We  believe  in  one  God  the  Father,  Almighty, 
Maker  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible;  and  in  one 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  begotten  of  the 
Father,  only  begotten,  that  is,  of  the  substance  of  the 
Father,  God  from  God,  Light  from  Light,  very  God 
from  very  God,  begotten  not  made,  of  the  same  sub- 
stance (ofxoovcnov)  with  the  Father,  through  whom  all 
things  were  made,  both  the  things  in  heaven  and  the 
things  on  earth,  who  for  us  men  and  for  our  salvation, 
came  down  and  was  incarnate,  and  became  man,  suf- 
fered and  rose  again  the  third  day,  ascended  to  heaven 
and  will  come  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead;  and 
in  the  Holy  Ghost." 

"Those  who  say  that  there  was  when  He  was  not, 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  137 

and  that  He  was  made  from  things  that  are  not  or  from 
another  substance  or  nature,  saying  that  the  son  of 
God  is  changed  or  changeable,  the  Holy,  Catholic  and 
Apostolic  church  anathematizes." 

And  this  is  the  declaration  of  faith  as  it  came  forth 
from  the  council  of  Nicaea.  It  was  signed  by  the  318 
bishops.  Some  of  them  did  it  with  mental  reservation 
that  was  not  conducive  to  the  highest  development  of 
the  spiritual  nature.  It  is  the  first  case  of  subscription 
on  record.  We  regret  the  anathematizing  clauses;  the 
article  on  the  Holy  Ghost  needs  elaboration;  a  doc- 
trine of  the  church  and  the  sacraments  is  lacking;  and 
there  is  no  doctrine  of  the  future  life.  Later  on  the 
anathematizing  clauses  were  dropped,  and  needed 
additions  were  made.* 

Most  unfortunately  the  decision  of  Nicaea  did  not 
settle  the  controversy.  The  Arians  arose  again,  the 
emperors  vacillated,  the  tide  turned  against  Athanasius 
for  a  time,  and  the  conflict  continued  for  more  than 
fifty  years.  "But,"  says  Sohm,  "Arianism  could  not 
endure,  for  it  had  not  the  strength  that  the  storms  of 
history  demand.  It  was  the  first  attempt  to  replace 
the  faith  of  Christianity  by  a  dialectic  rationalism" 
(Sohm:  0.  C.  H.,  p.  53). 

The  Christological  Controversies 

The  conflict  over  the  fact  of  the  incarnation  was  so 
absorbing  that  there  was  little  thought  of  the  nature  of 
the  incarnation.  It  was  only  a  question  of  time,  how- 
ever, when  this  even  more  abstruse  problem  would 
come  up  and  make  its  urgent  demands. 

The  Arian  controversy  had  settled  the  question  of 
the   divinity  and    humanity  of   Christ.      Theologians 

♦For  the  creed  as  we  have  it  to-day,  see  Fisher,  H.  C.  C,  p.  132. 


138    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

must  now  concern  themselves  with  the  relation  of  these 
two  natures.  The  problem  was:  How  can  the  divine 
and  the  human  be  united  in  one  person? 

The  first  theory  offered  is  known  as  Apollinarian- 
ism,  from  Apollinarus,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  c.  380. 

Apollinarus  held  to  the  three-fold  nature  of  man. 
The  highest  nature  is  spirit.  The  Logos  displaces  the 
spirit  in  man.  The  result  is  that  Christ's  complete 
humanity  is  sacrificed.  Apollinarus  was  a  man  of 
decided  literary  ability,  and  he  consequently  soon  had 
a  large  following.  Apollinarianism  was  the  main 
issue  at  the  First  Council  of  Constantinople,  381. 

The  second  theory  was  Nestorianism — which  took 
its  name  from  Nestorius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
428. 

In  the  Apollinarian  controversy  there  arose  two 
parties — the  Alexandrian  and  the  Antiochene.  As 
these  parties  engaged  in  conflict  the  Antiochene  party 
was  crowded  into  the  position  that  there  are  two  per- 
sons in  Christ — a  divine  and  a  human. 

The  theory  originated  not  with  Nestorius,  but  with 
Anastasius,  one  of  his  presbyters.  In  a  sermon 
Anastasius  objected  to  the  phrase  "Mother  of  God" 
(OeoTOKos).  He  maintained  that  she  could  only  be  the 
mother  of  His  human  nature.  Nestorius  sided  with  his 
presbyter  and  suggested  the  phrase  "Mother  of  Christ" 
{Xpto-TOT6Ko<i) .  This  idea  carried  out  led  Nestorius  into 
a  merely  mechanical  union  of  the  two  natures  in  the 
incarnation. 

His  most  formidable  antagonist  was  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria. Celestine,  bishop  of  Rome,  sided  with  Cyril. 
It  was  urged  against  Nestorius  that:  "In  this  case  we 
are  redeemed  by  the  sufferings  of  a  mere  man,  a  man 
is  to  us  the  Way  and  the  Truth  and  the  Life,  we  wor- 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  139 

ship  a  God-inhabited  man,  we  are  baptized  into  a  man, 
in  the  supper  we  partake  of  the  flesh  and  blood  of  a 
man"  (Banks:  Devel.  of  Doc, '^.  no). 

A  council  was  called  at  Ephesus,  431.  Nestorius 
would  not  appear,  and  before  the  arrival  of  the  bishops 
from  the  east,  in  spite  of  strong  protests,  Nestorius 
was  condemned.  Although  the  method  of  the  council 
cannot  be  approved,  its  action  is  sustained  by  the  ver- 
dict of  history. 

The  third  theory  is  Eutychianism.  The  problem  of 
the  union  of  the  divine  and  human  in  the  nature  of 
Christ  remained  unsolved.  About  448  Eutyches, 
abbot  at  Constantinople,  set  forth  the  theory  that  after 
the  incarnation  there  was  but  one  nature  in  Christ — a 
fusion  of  the  divine  and  human — a  single  nature — 
"God  made  flesh  and  come  to  dwell  in  man."  But 
when  pressed  it  turned  out  that  this  nature  was  neither 
divine  nor  human,  but  something  different  from 
both. 

Eutyches  was  opposed  by  Flavian,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. Dioscurus,  Cyril's  successor,  took  the 
side  of  Eutyches.  A  synod  was  called  in  446  at 
Ephesus,  at  which  the  Eutychians  carried  things  with 
a  high  hand,  using  physical  violence.  It  has  been 
called  the  "Robber  Synod."  This  led  to  the  council 
of  Chalcedon,  451,  in  which  Eutychianism  was  the 
issue.  This  council  is  famous  for  its  celebrated  Defi- 
nition, which  was  intended  to  be  an  all-round  and  final 
solution  of  this  very  abstruse,  and  perhaps  insoluble 
problem.  As  this  document  is  so  important,  its  main 
provisions  will  be  given. 

It  accepts  the  creed  of  Nicaea  with  the  changes  that 
it  has  undergone  and  proceeds  as  follows:  "This  wise 
and  saving  watchword  of  the  grace  of  God  would  have 


140     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

sufficed  for  the  true  knowledge  and  establishment  of 
our  religion.  But  since  those  who  seek  to  spoil  the 
proclamation  of  the  Truth  through  their  own  wilful 
errors  have  produced  their  idle  utterances,  some  dar- 
ing to  undermine  the  Lord's  incarnation  for  our  sakes, 
and  to  reject  the  term  'Mother  of  God,'  and  others 
to  introduce  [the  theory  of]  a  compound  and  mixture, 
foolishly  feigning  that  the  nature  of  the  Flesh  and  the 
Godhead  is  one,  and  unnaturally  asserting  that  the 
divine  nature  of  the  Only  Begotten  is,  by  the  com- 
pound, passible.  .  .  .  [the  synod]  opposes  those  who 
seek  to  rend  the  mystery  of  the  incarnation  into  a  Pair 
of  Sons,  and  thrusts  from  the  assembly  of  holy  worship 
those  who  dare  to  say  that  the  Godhead  of  the  Only 
Begotten  is  passible,  and  resists  those  who  invent  a 
mixture  or  compound  concerning  the  two  natures  of 
the  Christ,  and  cast  forth  those  who  teach,  that  that 
'Form  of  the  Bond-servant,*  which  he  took  from  us  is 
of  celestial  or  any  non-human  essence,  and  bans  those 
who  fable  two  natures  of  the  Lord  before  the  union 
but  invent  one  nature  after  it.  Following  then  the  holy 
Fathers  [of  Nicaea  and  Constantinople],  we  confess 
One  and  the  Same  Son,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  all 
with  one  voice  teach  that  he  is  perfect  in  Godhead  and 
perfect  also  in  Manhood,  God  truly,  also  Man  truly, 
of  reasonable  soul  and  body  consisting,  consubstantial, 
co-essential,  (ofioovcnov) ,  with  the  Father  as  to  the 
Godhead,  and  also  consubstantial  (co-essential)  with 
us  as  to  the  Manhood  in  all  things  like  to  us  without 
sin,  begotten  of  the  Father  before  the  ages  as  to  the 
Godhead,  but  also  in  the  end  of  days,  for  us  and  for 
our  salvation,  [born]  of  Mary,  the  virgin,  the  Mother 
of  God,  as  to  the  Manhood;  confessed  one  and  the 
same    Christ,     Son,     Lord,     Only    Begotten,    in    two 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  t  141 

Natures,  without  compound,  without  change,  without 
division,  without  (possible)  separation,  the  differences 
of  the  natures  being  nowise  removed  because  of  the 
Union,  but  rather  the  property  of  each  Nature  being 
preserved,  and  concurring  in  one  Person  and  one  sub- 
stance, not  as  if  He  were  to  be  partitioned  .  .  .  into 
two  Persons;  but  One  and  the  same  Son,  and  Only- 
Begotten,  God,  Word,  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  as  of  old 
the  Prophets  concerning  him,  and  also  He,  the  Lord 
himself,  instructed  us  and  as  the  Watchword  of  the 
Fathers  hath  handed  it  down  to  us."* 

The  fourth  theory  was  Monophysitism — or  the  doc- 
trine that  Christ  has  only  one  nature. 

This  is  really  an  extension  of  Eutychianism.  For 
it  was  the  Definition  of  Chalcedon  that  gave  rise  to  the 
Monophysite  controversy,  which  lasted  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  after  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  The 
revolt  started  in  Palestine  and  was  led  by  a  monk 
whose  name  was  Theodosius.  It  soon  extended  to 
Alexandria;  Proterius,  the  patriarch,  was  assassinated, 
and  succeeded  by  Aelurus,  a  Monophysite.  It  had 
not  only  a  religious  but  also  a  political  significance. 
As  the  Arian  controversy  in  the  days  of  Constantine 
disturbed  the  unity  of  the  empire,  so  the  Monophysite 
controversy  shook  the  empire  to  its  very  foundations. 
Different  emperors  took  different  sides.  Zeno  sought 
a  reconciliation  and  issued  the  Hciwticon  in  482.  This 
document  sought  to  avoid  the  controverted  points. 
But  it  failed  to  accomplish  anything.  And  so  the 
controversy  raged  until  we  come  to  the  beginning  of 
the  end  at  the  accession  of  Justinian,  527-565.  He  is 
sometimes  called    the    "Theological    Emperor,"    and 

♦Translated  by  Moule:  O.  C.  D.,  pp.  67,  68. 


142    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

there  is  no  question  as  to  his  ability  to  appreciate  the 
fine  points  in  theological  discussions.* 

The  great  aim  of  Justinian's  life  was  to  reunite  and 
establish  the  empire  upon  the  Chalcedonian  Creed. 
He  began  by  making  concessions  to  the  Monophysites. 
Then  he  collected  the  writings  of  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia;  the  letters  of  Theodoret  against  Cyril;  and 
the  letter  of  Ibas  to  Maris  into  "Three  Chapters,"  and 
pronounced  them  heretical.  When  requested  to  con- 
cur the  eastern  bishops  complied — the  western  bishops 
refused.  It  appears  that  Vigilius,  the  profligate  bishop 
of  Rome,  had  made  a  promise  to  Theodora,  the  wife 
of  Justinian,  that  he  would  concur.  But  when  he  faced 
the  people  of  the  west  he  did  not  keep  his  promise. 
Justinian  then  brought  him  to  Constantinople  and 
forced  him  to  draw  up  a  judicahim  condemning  "The 
Three  Chapters".  In  553  the  second  council  of  Con- 
stantinople was  convened  and  "The  Three  Chapters" 
were  condemned. 


The  Orige?iistic  Cojitroversy 

Origen  who  had  held  so  conspicuous  a  place  as  the 
founder  of  Christian  Theology  in  the  preceding  period 
is  destined  gradually  to  lose  his  influence  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries.  Origen  was  pre-eminently 
spiritual  in  his  conceptions — but  during  this  period 
materialism  and  externalism  are  creeping  in,  and  as 
they  advance  Origen  recedes.  His  writings  are  found 
to  be  full  of  heresy — and  at  last  he  and  his  views  are 
condemned  at  the  second  council  of  Constantinople  in 
553- 

*See  Hutton  :   The  Church  in  the  Sixth  Century, 


From  Constatitine  to  Gregory  I  143 

The  Pelagian  Controversy 

Until  the  opening  of  the  fifth  century  the  question 
of  the  relation  of  man's  will  to  God's  will  had  not 
come  up  for  serious  discussion.  But  this  relation  is  so 
central  among  the  problems  of  religion  and  ethics  that 
the  circle  would  be  quite  incomplete  without  some 
attempt  at  exposition.  Like  all  such  discussions  it 
arose  out  of  a  peculiar  environment  and  expressed 
itself  through  great  men  each  of  whom  had  a  large 
following,  and  both  of  whom,  in  the  exigencies  of 
debate,  were  driven  to  the  maintenance  of  propositions 
which  could  not  stand  the  test  of  reason  and  expe- 
rience. 

The  leaders  in  this  controversy  were  Augustine  — 
354-430,  and  Pelagius — c.  370 -c. 440.  Augustine's 
intense  nature,  his  long,  bitter,  and  varied  experience, 
with  sin,  had  led  him  to  a  deep  and  abiding  conviction 
of  the  terrible  nature  and  universality  of  sin.  In  his 
helplessness  and  hopelessness  he  had  an  experience  in 
his  inmost  heart  of  the  almighty  power  of  God's 
grace.  He  was  so  impressed  with  this  power  that  it 
became  the  dominant  influence  in  all  his  subsequent 
thought  and  life.  From  his  studies  in  Neoplatonism 
he  had  gained  the  idea  that  God  is  the  source  of  every- 
thing that  is  good. 

His  theology  was  centered  in  a  few  fundamental 
positions — the  outgrowth  of  his  experience  and  reflec- 
tion. Man,  he  said,  freely  fell  in  Adam,  and  in  the 
fall  lost  his  freedom,  and  was  utterly  undone — became 
a  mass  of  perdition;  he  is  saved  by  grace  alone, 
without  any  co-operation  on  his  own  part;  through 
grace  his  freedom  is  restored,  and  again  he  is  in  har- 
mony with  the  spirit  of  God;  but  God,  for  good  and 
sufficient  reasons,  willed  to  save  some  but  not  all  of 


144     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

the  fallen  race;  salvation  outside  the  visible  church  is 
impossible. 

Augustine's  was  a  magnetic  character,  and  his  influ- 
ence soon  spread  far  and  wide.  Western  Christendom 
began  to  carry  his  doctrines  to  their  logical  results, 
and  they  were  beginning  to  bear  fruit  in  the  lives  of 
men. 

That  a  spirit  of  protest  should  arise  was  natural.  It 
found  expression  in  Pelagius,  a  British  monk,  who  in 
Rome,  early  in  the  fifth  century,  began  to  exhort  men 
to  change  their  ways.  "Often  he  received  the  reply; 
'it  is  too  hard  for  us;  we  cannot  do  it;  we  are  but  men; 
sinful  flesh  doth  grossly  close  us  in.'  "  Augustine's 
expression  in  his  Confessio?is :  "Grant  what  thou  com- 
mandest,  command  what  thou  wilt,"  Pelagius  often 
met. 

Now  it  was  not  possible  for  Pelagius  to  understand 
Augustine  and  his  doctrines.  By  nature  he  was  the 
opposite  of  Augustine.  He  was  cool  and  self-pos- 
sessed; he  had  gone  through  no  such  struggles  with 
sin,  and  again  and  again  been  overcome  in  the  strug- 
gle; if  the  graver  temptations  had  ever  come  to  him 
he  had  been  able  to  resist  them.  He  was  more- 
over deeply  read  in  the  Greek  theology,  and  this  had, 
no  doubt,  influenced  his  conception  of  sin.  To  him  the 
teachings  of  Augustine,  as  they  appeared  in  their 
fruits,  were  exceedingly  harmful.  He  was  thus 
induced  to  formulate  some  propositions  of  his  own. 
He  took  exalted  views  of  the  nature  and  ability  of 
man,  and  light  views  of  the  nature  of  sin.  His  doc- 
trines are,  briefly  stated,  as  follows: 

He  denied  that  all  men  are  involved  in  Adam's  fall; 
sin  is  confined  to  specific  acts  of  the  will;  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  original   sin;    the  natural  human  will  is 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  145 

entirely  sufificient  to  the  attainment  of  holiness;  faith 
has  become  formal  and  dead;  such  a  faith  should  give 
way  to  earnest  moral  endeavor. 

Pelagius  was  already  an  old  man  when  his  views 
came  out.  He  did  not  like  controversy.  But  his 
pupil,  Coelestius,  a  Roman  lawyer,  younger  and  more 
daring,  precipitated  and  perpetuated  the  conflict.  It 
was  carried  on  by  Julian  of  Eclanum.  It  divided 
synods  and  councils.  It  involved  popes.  It  was 
received  with  some  favor  in  the  east,  yet,  on  account 
of  its  supposed  affinity  with  Nestorianism,  it  was  con- 
demned at  the  council  of  Ephesus.  It  met  with  little 
favor  in  the  west. 

Yet  neither  were  the  views  of  Augustine  ever  com- 
pletely accepted  in  the  west.  Many  theologians  hesi- 
tated at  the  extreme  consequences. 

The  free-will  controversy  thus  introduced  in  the 
fifth  century  was  not  permanently  settled.  It  reap- 
pears again  and  again.  It  is  one  of  those  antinomies 
that  run  through  history,  and  theology  and  philosophy. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  during  the  early  history  of 
the  church,  the  controversies  raged  mainly  around  the 
person  of  Christ,  and  that  the  great  doctrines  of  the 
Atonement,  and  Redemption,  and  the  Pauline  doc- 
trine of  Justification  by  Faith  hardly  came  into  promi- 
nence at  all. 

E.  The  Growth  of  Centralization 

Already  the  power  was  gradually  centralizing  in  the 
churches  of  Rome,  Antioch  and  Alexandria.  Environ- 
ment and  tradition  had  united  in  making  these  three 
churches  the  leaders  of  Christendom.  At  the  council 
of  Nicaea  their  privileges  were  confirmed. 

The  jurisdiction  of  Alexandria  extended  over  Egypt 


146     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  the  adjacent  countries;  that  of  Antioch  over  Syria 
and  adjoining  portions  of  the  eastern  empire;  that  of 
Rome  over  Italy,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica  and  Valeria. 

But  now  suddenly  Constantinople  comes  to  the 
front  and  takes  a  place  second  only  to  Rome.  This 
city  has  become  the  second  capital  of  the  Empire,  and 
at  the  first  council  in  381  its  bishop  is  suddenly  raised 
to  this  lofty  position.  The  council  of  Chalcedon  in 
451  makes  him  ruler  over  Thrace,  Asia  Minor  and 
Pontus.  That  same  council  raised  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem  to  the  rank  of  Patriarch  of  Palestine.  There 
are  now  five  great  sees — Rome,  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  "The  guidance  of  the 
Christian  Church  lay  in  their  hands.  But  the  meaning 
of  their  new  title  was  this:  that  each  one  of  them  had 
the  right  to  the  rank  of  "Great  Father,"  or  Pope  of  all 
Christendom.  And  now  there  appeared  on  the  hori- 
zon the  question  of  a  monarchical  head  of  the  church, 
of  the  oecumenical  ecclesia,  furnished  by  law  with 
supreme  authority.  The  great  question  suggested  by 
the  title  of  Patriarch  was  this:  "Who  among  all  these 
great  bishops  shall  be  first,  the  Primate  of  the  whole 
churchf    (Sohm:   0.  C.  H.,  p.  58). 

Almost  from  the  beginning  the  decision  lies  between 
Rome  and  Constantinople. 

Why  should  the  primacy  go  to  Constantinople?  In 
the  first  place  the  eastern  emperor  is  the  emperor  of 
the  world — and  it  was  the  spirit  of  the  Roman  Empire 
that  its  head  should  rule  not  only  the  state  but  the 
church  as  well. 

In  the  second  place  the  bishop  of  Constantinople 
was  the  imperial  bishop,  and  his  interests  would  be 
indentical  with  those  of  the  emperor. 

But  why  should  Rome  have  the  primacy? 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  147 

1st.  It  became  evident  at  once  that  the  freedom  of 
the  church  would  be  too  greatly  endangered  if  the 
primacy  were  at  Constantinople. 

2d.  From  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the 
Roman  church  was  supposed  to  have  been  founded 
by  Peter  and  Paul,  and  its  bishop  was  claimed  to  be 
the  successor  of  Peter. 

3d.  The  decision  of  an  Apostolic  church  was  sup- 
posed to  be  of  special  authority.  Rome  was  the  only 
Apostolic  church  in  the  west.  Its  relations  with 
Africa,  Spain  and  Gaul  were  unbroken. 

4th.  Rome  was  the  "Eternal  City" — the  capital  of 
the  world. 

5th.  In  all  the  doctrinal  controversies  of  the  first 
three  centuries  the  Roman  church  had  been  the  con- 
trolling influence. 

6th.  Through  all  the  great  controversies  Rome  had 
remained  unfalteringly  orthodox — and  this  fact  was 
known  through  the  east  and  the  west. 

7th.  Rome  was  first  by  right  of  "ecclesiastical 
primogeniture." 

Two  important  results  came  out  of  this  contest  for 
the  primacy. 

The  first  was,  that  on  the  whole,  Rome  was  decidedly 
the  gainer  and  the  power  of  her  bishops,  and  the 
extent  of  their  influence  were  greatly  increased. 

The  second  was  that  the  marked  differences 
between  the  mental  temperaments  of  the  East  and  the 
West  became  more  sharply  defined.  A  long  step  is 
taken  toward  the  final  separation  of  the  East  and  the 
West. 

The  growth  of  centralization  was  greatly  aided  by 
the  growth  of  canon  law,  which  was  now  beginning  to 
take  definite  form. 


148     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

It  was  but  natural  that  the  moral  precepts  of  Chris- 
tianity should  express  themselves  in  rules,  and  that 
these  rules  should  be  systematized.  There  were  rules 
of  merely  local  interest  and  rules  of  universal  interest. 
The  latter  rules  because  of  their  general  value  were 
codified. 

As  the  church,  in  so  many  respects  was  copying  the 
Empire,  it  was  to  be  expected  that  in  this  fundamental 
matter  the  syjitagma  or  Nomocanon  of  Johannes 
Scholasticus,  c.  570,  should  derive  much  benefit  from 
the  codes  of  Theodosius,  438,  and  Justinian,  534. 

A  strong  retarding  influence  to  centralization  was 
developed  in  the  Donatist  movement  which  became  a 
schism,  involved  nearly  all  of  Africa  and  lasted  more 
than  a  hundred  years.  The  motive  for  this  schism  was 
a  stricter  discipline,  and  greater  purity  of  life  both  in 
the  clergy  and  the  laity. 

F.    Christian  Life  and  Worship 

We  have  said  that  all  divisions  in  history  are  more 
or  less  arbitrary.  History  is  one  vast  all-compre- 
hending process.  Its  thought  and  life  in  all  their 
infinite  varieties  move  on  together  as  parts  of  one  great 
whole.  And  so  while  the  leading  doctrines  of  the 
church  were  taking  form  through  conflict,  and  while 
the  gospel  was  spreading  among  the  heathen,  and 
while  the  church  was  organizing  and  centralizing, 
significant  developments  were  taking  place  in  the 
forms  of  worship,  and  in  the  practical  life  of  the 
people. 

When  Constantine  came  to  the  imperial  throne  and 
reunited  the  empire  a  momentous  change  took  place 
in  general  history.     It  meant  the  death  of  heathenism 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  149 

and  the  enthronement  of  Christianity.  It  was  another 
step  in  the  decay  of  a  mighty  civilization  which  is  by 
the  end  of  the  sixth  century  to  pass  out  yielding  its 
permanent  elements  to  combination  with  the  ideas  and 
institutions  of  the  rude  men  of  the  north.  The  result 
is  a  new  civilization  full  of  promise.  For  Christianity 
it  is  a  time  of  bright  hope  and  grave  apprehension. 
The  new  religion  becomes  popular,  wealthy  and  cul- 
tured. The  church  is  soon  filled  with  merely  nominal 
Christians.  The  real  Christians  have  the  usual 
imperfections  and  limitations  of  men.  The  loaves 
and  fishes  become  powerful  motives.  People  who 
become  Christians  expect  to  make  something  out  of 
it.  The  more  ambitious  seek  the  positions  of  honor 
and  power  in  order  that  they  may  turn  them  to  their 
own  advantage,  and  it  is  not  long  until  the  world  is 
impressed  with  the  hypocrisy  and  wickedness  of  clergy 
and  laity  alike.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  made  an  early 
and  lasting  impression  on  the  emperor  Julian. 

But,  fortunately,  there  is  always  a  saving  remnant 
in  society.  There  will  always  be  those  who  are 
entirely  sincere,  who  will  first  be  shocked  at  those  who 
profess  but  do  not,  who  will  finally  raise  their  voices 
in  protest,  and  support  their  words  by  their  deeds. 
Such  men  and  women  turn  out  to  be  expressions  of 
smoldering  public  opinion,  and  as  a  consequence  they  / 
bring  things  to  pass. 

During  the  three  centuries  of  this  period  there  is  no 
break  with  the  preceding  periods.  The  great  lines  of 
growth  move  on.  Movements,  good  and  bad,  that 
have  in  them  elements  of  strength,  push  on  to  fuller 
development;  seeds  previously  planted  germinate  and 
grow. 


150    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

A.     MONASTICISM 

LITERATURE 

Weingarten :   Ursprung  des  Monchthums. 
Moeller:   Geschichte  des  Mofichthums. 
Harnack:     Das    Mdchthiim,    seine    Idealen    iind   seine 
Geschichte. 
Montalembert:   The  Monks  of  the  West.     7  vols. 
Wishart:  Monks  and  Monasticisjn. 

The  causes  that  led  to  Monasticism  have  already 
been  considered.  The  same  conditions  continue  to 
exist  in  this  period,  with  the  difference  that  they  are 
much  enlarged  and  intensified. 

In  monasticism  we  have  some  shocking  extremes  of 
fanaticism,  such  as  the  Stylites  founded  by  Simeon 
Stylites — 390-460,  and  the  Bosci  (Boo-Kot).  But  these  do 
not  fairly  represent  the  monastic  orders  that  grew  up 
through  the  east  and  the  west  and  became  tremendous 
agencies  in  the  progress  of  Christianity  and  the 
world. 

Mo7iasticism  i?i  the  East 

Egypt  was  in  a  very  special  sense  the  home  of 
monasticism. 

As  the  principal  founders  and  promoters  of  monas- 
ticism in  the  east  we  may  mention: 

1st.  Pachomius,  who  in  335,  founded  a  monastery  at 
Tabennae,  and  gave  it  a  rule.  Its  chief  characteristics 
were  "simplicity  of  life,  labour,  devotion  and  obedi- 
ence." 

2d.  Basil,  one  of  the  Three  Great  Cappadocians. 
He  founded  a  cloister  in  Neo-Caesarea  and  gave  it  a 
rule.  Basil  himself  was  a  man  of  profound  scholar- 
ship.    This  was  a  controlling  fact  in  his  conception  of 


From  Constantine  to   Gres'orv  I  151 


^=>' 


a  monastery.  So  he  sought  a  combination  of  asceti- 
cism with  the  scientific  study  of  theology.  Basil's 
order  exists  still  to-day  in  the  Greek  church. 

3d.  Nilus,  who  founded  a  monastery  on  Sinai 
between  420  and  440.  This  monastery  became  a 
treasury  for  the  manuscripts  of  the  literature  of  the 
Fathers  and  the  Bible.  Important  discoveries  have 
been  made  here  in  our  own  times. 

Monasticism  i?i  the  West 

Monastic  ideas  were  not  long  in  finding  their  way 
into  the  west.  It  is  said  that  about  341  Athanasius 
carried  the  idea  to  Rome.  Augustine  found  a  monas- 
tery at  Milan  supported  by  Ambrose.  Rufinus  lived 
as  a  catechumen  in  a  monastery  at  Aquileia  before 
370.  Here  he  met  Jerome,  who  was  the  chief  early 
promoter  of  monasticism  in  the  west. 

The  environments  here  were  very  different  from 
those  in  the  east.  There  was,  for  instance,  a  vast 
difference  in  the  climate.  This  had  a  very  decided 
influence  on  the  form  which  the  institution  should 
take.  Moreover,  the  more  practical  turn  of  the  west- 
ern mind  made  the  fanatical  extremes  of  the  East 
impossible.  There  could  not  have  been  a  Simeon 
Stylites  in  the  west. 

The  principal  founders  of  monasteries  were: 

1st.  John  Cassianus.  He  was  born  in  the  west, 
probably  in  Gaul;  was  a  pupil  of  Jerome  at  Bethlehem; 
a  sojourner  among  the  monks  and  anchorets  of  Egypt 
for  years;  ordained  deacon  by  Chrysostom;  visited 
Rome;  settled  in  southern  Gaul.  Here  in  upper 
Provence  at  Apt  he  founded  a  monastery  and  a  con- 
vent  shortly   after  —  410.       His    De  Coenob.  Institutis 


152    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

supplied  the  foundation  and  gave  the  impetus  to  west- 
ern monasticism.* 

2d.  Benedict  of  Nursia.  c.  480-543.  Born  of  noble 
family;  sent  to  Rome  for  scientific  study,  he  was 
shocked  by  the  prevalent  immorality  which  he  saw  on 
all  sides  and  retired  to  Subiaco.  Here  he  underwent 
great  conflicts  with  his  passions.  He  also  found  that 
he  could  not  escape  the  crowds  who  were  attracted  by 
his  fame.  He  accordingly  set  out  for  southern  Italy 
where  he  became  the  founder  of  the  famous  monastery 
of  Monte  Cassino.  Benedict  wrote  the  rule  that 
became  the  model  of  nearly  all  the  monasteries  that 
were  subsequently  established  in  the  west.     529.! 

The  purpose  of  the  rule  was  the  training  of  the 
members  of  the  monastery — and  not  the  training  of 
the  world  outside.  Its  idea  was  that  of  a  "conversion 
from  the  world."  Yet  it  contained  germs  of  whose 
fruition  Benedict  had  no  conception.  For  example, 
the  results  of  manual  labor  and  agriculture  could  not 
be  confined  within  the  boundaries  of  a  monastery. 
They  were  destined  to  have  a  powerful  effect  on 
civilization. 

3d.     Cassiodorus.     c.  470-563. 

Born  and  reared  in  high  life,  he  served  under  Theod- 
oric,  was  a  senator  and  a  man  of  wide  connections. 
Forsaking  all  these  attractions  he  withdrew  to  Abruzzi 
where  he  founded  the  monastery  of  Vivarium  and  sup- 
plied it  with  books  and  all  the  necessaries  for  study. 
This  monastery  in  many  respects  took  the  place  of  a 
theological  school  in  the  west.  Here  he  composed  his 
celebrated  Institutions. 

*For  excellent  outline,  see  Moeller,  Vol.  I,  pp.  363-371. 
fFor  good  outline  of  Benedict's  rule,  see  Smith's  £cc/.  Htst.^ 
Vol.  I,  pp.  409-414. 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  163 

"Not  only  were  the  monks  incited  by  his  example  to 
the  study  of  classical  and  sacred  literature;  he  trained 
them  likewise  in  the  careful  transcription  of  manu- 
scripts in  the  purchase  of  which  large  sums  were  con- 
tinually disbursed.  Bookbinding,  gardening,  and 
medicine  were  among  the  pursuits  of  the  less  intellec- 
tual members  of  the  fraternity.  The  system  took  root 
and  spread  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Italy,  so  that  the 
multiplication  of  manuscripts  became  gradually  as 
much  a  recognized  employment  of  monastic  life  as 
prayer  and  fasting."* 

In  monasticism  we  see  the  beginnings  of  a  great 
protest  of  the  individual  against  a  constitutional 
church  which  had  already  gone  so  far  as  to  be  in  a 
considerable  degree  mechanical  and  dead.  In  monas- 
ticism with  all  its  perversions  and  later  corruptions  we 
have  a  foregleam  of  the  reformation  which,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  is  to  sweep  over  western  Christen- 
dom with  irresistible  power.f 

B.     CLERICAL    CELIBACY 

Another  manifestation  of  the  ascetic  tendency  was 
seen  in  the  rising  disposition  to  recommend  that  the 
clergy  refrain  from  marriage.  This  spirit  showed 
itself  in  the  council  of  Nicaea  and  called  out  the 
strong  and  effectual  protest  of  Paphnutius.  Yet  the 
tendency  was  unmistakable  and  it  gathered  strength  as 
the  years  went  by.  While  marriage  was  the  privilege 
of  all,  those  who  did  not  marry  were  looked  upon  as 
superior  and  were  the  subjects  of  greater  honor.  The 
oriental   idea  of  the  essential   impurity  of  matter  and 

♦Quoted  by  Cheetham,  pp.  265-6,  from  Diet,  of  Christian  Biog. 
f  See  Allen— chapter  on   Monasticism  in   his  Christian  Insti- 
tutions. 


154    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

consequently  of  the  physical  body  was  very  strong. 
In  such  an  age  as  this  it  could  be  only  a  question  of 
time  when  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  would  be 
required. 

C.     WORSHIP 

To  us  it  seems  strange  that  any  part  of  worship,  or 
any  of  the  doctrines  of  the  church  should  be  kept 
secret.  Yet  in  the  early  church  there  were  many 
reasons  that  seemed  to  make  the  disciplbia  arcaiii 
necessary.  Among'  these  reasons  was  the  fear  that 
they  might  be  imitated  or  parodied  by  the  heathen. 

All  who  entered  the  church  had  to  pass  through  a 
course  of  preparatory  instruction  and  were  called 
catechumens.  When  the  catechumens  came  to  the 
end  of  their  course  the  arcana  coelcsti  were  fully 
explained  to  them,  especially  the  creed  and  the 
sacraments. 

Baptism  in  the  west  was  usually  administered  on 
Easter  and  Pentecost.  The  preparations  were  essen- 
tially the  same  as  in  the  preceding  period.  The  mode 
was  trine  immersion.  The  washing  of  feet  appears 
early  in  the  fourth  century.  Infant  baptism  was  prac- 
ticed but:  "It  is  clear  that  in  the  period  with  which  we 
are  dealing,  baptism  was  commonly  administered  to 
such  as  were  capable  of  instruction  in  the  mysteries" 
(Cheetham:  p.  272). 

Baptism  was  usually  postponed  until  as  late  in  life 
as  possible,  since  it  was  a  washing  away  of  sins,  and 
since  sins  committed  after  baptism  were  harder  to  be 
forgiven.     In  an  emergency  a  layman  might  baptize. 

The  act  of  central  interest  in  worship  was  the  Lord's 
Supper;  theoretically,  preaching  was  regarded  as  pre- 
paratory to  the  Lord's  Supper.     But   in  cities  where 


From  Const antine  to  Gregory  I  155 

the  state  of  general  culture  was  high,  and  where  men 
with  gifts  of  eloquence,  like  Chrysostom,  Ambrose, 
and  Augustine,  were  found,  preaching  came  to  have  a 
place  of  its  own,  and  even  took  the  precedence  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  "From  the  fourth  century  Greek 
rhetorical  art  takes  possession  of  the  Christian  pulpit 
and  introduces  a  short  period  of  splendor  in  Greek 
preaching"  (Moeller:  Vol.  I.,  p.  533). 

The  duty  of  preaching  devolved  upon  the  bishop. 
But  the  presbyter  often  preached.  Under  no  circum- 
stances might  a  layman  preach. 

The  singing  was  done  by  the  congregation  and  by 
the  choir  at  the  beginning  of  the  period.  Symphonies 
and  antiphonies  (anthems)  were  developed.  Chrysos- 
tom and  Ambrose  used  the  antiphony  in  opposition 
to  the  Arians  who,  being  excluded  from  the  churches, 
put  their  doctrines  into  verses  to  be  sung.  In  the 
Greek  church  congregational  singing  was  displaced  by 
the  choir — while  in  the  Roman  church  it  came  to  be 
done  by  the  priests. 

D.     FESTIVALS 

Various  festivals  were  observed  in  the  preceding 
period,  but  it  was  reserved  to  the  Post-Nicene  age  to 
develop  the  Festivals  of  Saints.  Christianity  had 
gained  its  victories  at  a  fearful  cost  of  suffering  and 
life.  And  after  it  was  all  over  it  would  have  been 
exceedingly  ungrateful  not  to  remember  the  heroes 
who  had  sacrificed  their  all  in  the  conflict.  And  in  a 
primitive  age  the  tendency  was  too  strong  to  magnify 
unduly  their  valor,  and  make  them  something  more 
than  men.  This  commemoration  easily  led  to  a  kind 
of  worship.  The  heroes  were  thought  to  be  especially 
near   to    God.       Therefore    requests    made    known    to 


156     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

them  were  likely  to  be  more  effectual  with  God. 
The  step  then  was  short  from  the  worship  of  their 
spirits  to  the  worship  of  their  bodies.  Then  the  places 
where  they  had  lived  or  where  they  had  done  their 
great  deeds,  or  had  died,  became  especially  sacred. 
Their  bones  or  any  articles  that  they  had  used  came  to 
have  peculiar  efficacy.  Then  by  natural  sequence 
came  pilgrimages  to  their  tombs,  saints'  days  and 
calendars. 

Before  all  the  saints  was  placed  Mary,  the  Mother 
of  God — the  subject  of  the  Nestorian  controversy. 
All  her  qualities  were  exaggerated.  Virginity  was 
exalted — it  was  said  that  Mary  remained  a  virgin  after 
the  birth  of  the  Saviour. 

E.      CHRISTIAN     ART 

As  soon  as  Christianity  was  recognized  favorably  by 
the  emperors,  and  grew  in  popularity,  larger  and  more 
attractive  places  of  worship  became  a  necessity.  The 
feeling  of  triumph  over  paganism,  and  the  addition  of 
members  more  or  less  lax  in  their  lives  tended  to 
soften  the  extremely  rigorous  views  of  the  earlier  days. 
It  soon  became  possible  for  the  aesthetic  nature  to 
express  itself  in  all  the  forms  of  art  —  architecture, 
sculpture,  and  painting. 

Now  it  was  clearly  impossible  for  Christianity  to  form 
new  conceptions  in  architecture.  It  could  only  adapt 
what  it  found  at  hand,  and  what  had  been  the  slow 
growth  of  ages.  The  heathen  temples  did  not  very 
well  meet  the  demands  of  Christian  worship,  and 
although  they  were  sometimes  used,  their  use  was  not 
extensive.  The  Roman  basilicas  used  as  courts  of 
justice,  market  places  and  exchanges,  however,  just  as 
they  stood,  could  be  used  with   perfect  ease.     And  so 


From  Constantine  to  Gregory  I  157 

they  gave  the  forms  which  controlled,  with  their 
various  modifications,  much  of  the  church-building  of 
the  future.  The  body  of  the  building  was  used  by  the 
congregation,  and  the  semi-circular  apse  for  the  altar. 
The  bishop,  of  course,  took  the  place  of  the  praetor, 
or  quaestor,  the  priests  or  presbyters,  the  places  of  the 
assessors.  "The  apse  was  sometimes  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  building  by  a  transverse  passage  run- 
ning across  the  entrance  to  the  apse,  thus  converting 
the  building  into  the  form  of  a  cross.  These  passages 
were  called  transepts."  Buildings  of  this  kind  are 
San  Clemente  in  Rome,  St.  Paul's  Outside  the  Walls, 
built  c.  386,  and  Old  St.  Peter's  built  in  the  reign  of 
Constantine — and  "the  two  small  basilicas  of  St. 
Agnese,  and  San  Lorenzo,  at  the  gates  of  Rome." 

Another  form  of  building  was  the  dome-shaped,  of 
which  St.  Sophia  is  the  greatest  example. 

So  great  was  the  horror  of  image  worship  among  the 
early  Christians  that  they  discouraged  all  visible  rep- 
resentations of  Christ.  But  in  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine we  begin  to  have  historical  representations  of 
Christ,  "and  find  him  on  the  sarcophagi  teaching  or 
working  miracles." 

"The  only  really  important  existing  Christian  statue 
of  this  period  is  the  large  seated  bronze  figure  of  St. 
Peter  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome."  Once  started  sculp- 
ture developed  rapidly.  "In  the  time  of  Constantine, 
too.  Christian  painting,  no  longer  confined  to  subter- 
ranean life,  was  called  upon  to  decorate  the  vast 
basilicas  and  churches  appropriately  to  the  new 
worship."* 

*See  D'Anvers  :  Eleinetitary  History  of  A7't.  For  the  devel- 
opment of  Ecclesiastical  Architecture,  see  especially  Martin. 


BOOK    SECOND 

MEDIEVAL   CHURCH   HISTORY 


CHAPTER   I 

MEDI/EVAL   CHURCH    HISTORY 

(590-1517) 
LITERATURE 

Especial  references  will  be  made  in  the  course  of  the 
narrative.     General  works  for  continual  reference  are: 

Assmann:  Allgemeine  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters.  Very- 
valuable.     2d  ed.     Meyer. 

Leo:  Lehrbiich  der  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters.     2  vols. 

Pflugk-Hartung:  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters.     3  vols. 

Giesbrecht:  Deutsche  Kaiserzeit.  6  vols.  Indispensa- 
ble.    Contains  abstracts  of  many  documents. 

Emerton:  hitroduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  MedicEval  Europe.  These  two  volumes  contain 
the  fruits  of  many  years  of  patient  investigation.  The 
bibliographies  are  extensive  and  are  selected  with 
great  care. 

Mathews:  Select  Mediceval  Documents.  2d  ed.,  with 
critical  notes  and  glossary.  A  careful  selection  of 
leading  documents  from  752  to  1245. 

Henderson:  Historical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
A  translation  of  many  leading  documents. 

The  University  of  Pennsylvania:  Tra?islations  and  Re- 
prints from  the  Origi?ial  Sources  of  European  History. 
Contains  many  mediaeval  documents — valuable.  Six 
volumes  now  published  (1901). 

161 


162    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Thatcher  and  Schwill:  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  An 
excellent  repertory  of  facts  attractively  presented. 

Dunning:  History  of  Political  Theories,  Ancient  and 
MedicBval.     New. 

Duruy:  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Many  chapters  in 
the  book  are  clear  and  animated. 

Gihhon:  Decliiie  and  Fall. 

Bryce:  Holy  Roman  Empire.     Of  permanent  value. 

Fisher:  Mediceval  Empire.  2  vols.  New,  and  admir- 
able supplement  to  Bryce. 

Stille :  Studies  in  Mediceval  History. 

Adams :  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages.  A  thought- 
ful  presentation  of  the  great  conceptions  of  the  period. 

Poole:  Illustrations  of  Mediceval  Thought.  Very  im- 
portant. 

Gregorovius:  The  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages.  10 
vols.     Of  the  greatest  value. 

DoUinger:  Historical  Addresses.  Especially  the  arti- 
cles on  the  Pope  and  the  Universities. 

Rashdall:  History  of  Universities  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
2  vols.  A  very  complete  and  satisfactory  discussion. 
All  previous  works  in  English  will  need  to  be  modified 
by  this  work. 

Taylor:  The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Very  important. 

Milman:  History  of  Latin  Christianity . 

Moeller:  History  of  the  Christian  Church.  Middle  Ages. 
Of  great  importance. 

Hardwick:  Church  History.     Middle  Ages. 

Workman:  The  Church  of  the  West  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
2  vols.  An  interesting  popular  treatment.  The  Dazvn 
of  the  Reformatio?!,  by  the  same  author,  has  just  ap- 
peared (1901). 

Banks:   The  Development  of  Doctrine.     Early    Middle 


Medieval   Church  History  163 

Ages    to    the    Reformation.     A    continuation    of    the 
author's  work  cited  in  the  ancient  period. 

General  Characteristics  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

There  are  no  violent  breaks  with  the  past.  The 
stream  of  history  moves  on  with  many  deviations  and 
divisions,  but  the  chain  of  cause  and  effect  remains 
unbroken.  The  seeds  sown  in  the  ancient  period  bear 
their  legitimate  fruit — good  and  bad — in  the  mediaeval 
period. 

Philosophically  and  theologically  the  Middle  Age  is 
dominated  by  scholasticism  which  runs  to  seed  near 
the  end  of  the  period. 

Ecclesiastically  the  papacy  reaches  its  zenith  in 
Gregory  VII.  and  Innocent  III.,  and  begins  to  decline 
in  Boniface  VIII.,  whose  unfortunate  reign  is  followed 
by  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  church,  and  the 
Great  Schism — from  the  effects  of  which  the  Roman 
Church  has  never  been  able  fully  to  rally.  It  is  dur- 
ing this  period,  too,  that  the  final  schism  between  the 
eastern  and  western  churches  took  place  in  1054. 
Politically  and  socially  the  medieval  era  was  one  of 
momentous  events.  It  was  the  age  of  Feudalism, 
Chivalry  and  the  Crusades.  It  was  also  a  time  when 
great  affinities  struck — Greek,  Roman  and  Barbarian 
met  and  combined— and  the  result  was  the  establish- 
ment of  national  states,  as  England,  France,  Germany, 
Spain;  and  of  modern  civilization  with  all  its  diversity 
in  unity. 

In  Christian  life  and  worship  there  was  a  general 
decay  of  intelligence  and  piety,  but  there  were  also 
many  and  unmistakable  manifestations  of  reformatory 
spirit,  as   shown   in  the   new  monastic   orders,   in   the 


164    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

revival    of   learning,    and    in    such    heroes    as    Dante, 
Wiclif,  Hus,  and  Savonarola. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  too,  that  there  is  a  general  shift- 
ing of  interest  during  this  period  from  the  east  to  the 
west.     This  is  true  both  in  politics  and  religion. 


CHAPTER    II 

FROM  GREGORY  THE  GREAT  TO   THE 
DEATH  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT 

(590  814) 
A.    Church  and  State 

A.     IN    THE    WEST 

As  far  back  as  375  the  northern  peoples  began  to 
migrate  and  invade  the  Roman  Empire.  They  ov^er- 
ran  the  entire  west,  and  in  476  the  western  line  of 
emperors  came  to  an  end.  By  the  opening  of  the 
sixth  century  we  find  the  Ostrogoths  settled  in  Italy, 
the  Franks  in  Gaul,  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain,  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain,  and  the  Vandals  in  northern 
Africa. 

From  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain  and  the  Franks  in 
Gaul  momentous  consequences  are  to  follow  both  in 
church  and  state. 

The  conversion  of  the  Frankish  king,  Clovis,  was  a 
decisive  event  for  western  civilization.  He  laid  the 
foundations  for  what  afterwards  became  the  empire  of 
Charles  the  Great — an  empire  out  of  which  were  to 
come  the  chief  nations  of  modern  Europe,  and  the 
great  political,  economic,  religious,  social  and  legal 
ideas  that  were  to  control  the  Middle  Ages.  For 
some  time  the  Frankish  dominion  continued  to  grow, 
but  the  fatal  principle  of  division  which  was  intro- 
duced after  the  death  of  Clovis,  511,  more  and  more 

165 


166     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

called  out  the  savagery  of  his  descendants.  And  by 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  Merovingians 
entered  upon  a  rapid  course  of  decay  and  decline. 
The  story  of  the  treachery  and  crimes  of  this  period  as 
impersonated  in  the  queens  Fredegonde  and  Brun- 
hilde  is  one  of  the  dreariest  pages  in  history.  The 
power  gradually  passed  from  the  weak  kings  to  their 
prime  ministers,  who*  were  known  as  Mayors  of  the 
Palace,  and  finally  in  751,  with  the  sanction  of  Pope 
Stephen,  Pippin  the  Short  assumed  the  crown,  and  we 
have  the  beginning  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  The 
new  king  was  consecrated  with  holy  oil  as  David  had 
been  anointed  in  taking  the  place  of  Saul.  From  this 
time  on  the  Frankish  king  is  a  faithful  son  of  the 
church — "king  by  the  grace  of  God." 

A  period  of  324  years  had  passed  between  the 
abdication  of  Romulus  Augustulus  and  the  coronation 
of  Charles.  During  most  of  this  time  Rome  was  in 
ruins  and  almost  desolate.  Her  population  was 
reduced  to  fifty  thousand.  She  seemed  left  to  the 
mercy  of  internal  strife  and  the  ruthless  invader.  But 
yet  her  influence  remained.  Men  could  not  forget 
what  she  had  been  and  what  she  had  done.  Her  bish- 
ops were  men  of  ability  and  integrity,  and  to  them 
men  looked  for  guidance  in  both  secular  and  religious 
affairs.  The  political  interest  centered  chiefly  in  Con- 
stantinople. The  breach  between  the  two  cities 
steadily  widened.  Rome  soon  learned  that  when 
sorely  pressed  she  could  expect  no  help  from  that 
source. 

All  these  circumstances  led  the  popes  to  rely  upon 
themselves,  and  so  by  the  very  nature  of  the  situation 
they  were  forced  into  secular  matters.  Thus  there 
imperceptibly  grew   up  at   Rome   a   little   nucleus  of 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  167 

sovereignty.      It  was  not  long  until  the  pope  was  prac- 
tically king  of  Rome  and  the  adjacent  territories. 

About  568  the  Lombards  began  to  make  their  way 
into  Italy.  Their  conquest  of  the  peninsula  was 
never  complete,  but  by  the  middle  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, just  when  the  pope  was  helping  Stephen  to  the 
crown  of  the  Franks,  the  Lombards  had  conquered 
most  of  Italy  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  larger 
cities.  They  were  already  beginning  to  encroach 
upon  the  papal  dominion. 

The  pope  had  already  called  in  vain  for  help  upon 
Charles  Martel,  but  now  in  great  distress  he  called 
upon  Pippin,  to  whom  he  has  rendered  so  signal  a 
service.  This  time  the  call  is  not  in  vain.  Pippin 
goes  twice  into  Italy,  and  the  second  time  donates  to 
the  pope  his  conquests  from  the  Lombards.  This 
donation  included  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna.  The 
pope  now  became  sovereign  from  sea  to  sea,  and  we 
have  the  papal  states  substantially  as  they  remained 
until  1870. 

The  way  had  now  been  prepared  by  Charles  Martel 
and  Pippin  for  decisive  steps  in  the  way  of  expansion, 
Christianization,  and  consolidation.  When  Charles 
the  Great  came  to  the  throne  in  768  he  rapidly 
advanced  on  all  the  lines  indicated  north,  south,  east 
and  west,  until  his  dominions  practically  coincided 
with   the   western    Roman    Empire.  ~- 

When  the  Lombards  again  troubled  the  papal 
dominions  Charles  subdued  them,  put  the  iron  crown 
upon  his  own  head,  and  confirmed  the  donation 
made  by  Pippin.  He  sought  to  overcome  the  cen- 
trifugal tendencies  in  his  empire  by  sending  out 
every  year  all  through  his  dominions  traveling  repre- 
sentatives, two  and  two,  whose  business  was  to  hear 


168    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

evidence,  render  decisions,  and  report  to  himself. 
This  conception  of  Missi  Dominici  went  through 
Normandy  into  England  and  ultimately  developed 
into  the  circuit  court. 

It  was  now  perfectly  evident  that  the  western  empire 
had  been  revived.  Pope  Leo  III.  was  quick  to  see  the 
new  situation.  He  wished  to  come  into  still  closer 
connection  with  a  man  of  such  powers.  Perhaps,  too, 
he  was  moved  by  a  feeling  of  gratitude  for  all  the 
favors  he  had  received,  from  Charles.  Accordingly  on 
Christmas  Day,  800,  while  Charles  was  kneeling  at 
prayer  in  St.  Peter's  church,  the  pope  placed  the 
crown  upon  his  head.  Thus  the  western  empire  was 
restored,  and  the  continuity  of  the  Caesars  was  resumed. 

At  the  moment  all  seemed  harmonious  between 
church  and  state.  But  very  soon  it  became  evident 
that  the  union  was  not  perfect.  Charles  proposed  to 
be  master  at  least  of  his  own  actions.  Differences 
gradually  arose  as  to  whether  emperor  or  pope  should 
be  first.  Thus  gradually  the  conflict  between  church 
and  empire  that  was  to  run  through  the  Middle  Ages 
began.  In  this  conflict  the  church  gradually  encroached 
upon  the  state  until  the  zenith  was  reached  under 
Innocent  III.,  1198. 

The  empire  established  by  Charles  could  not  endure 
as  an  empire.  It  was,  however,  one  of  those  decisive 
events  in  history  which  gather  up  and  conserve  ele- 
ments that  were  in  danger  of  being  dissipated  and  lost. 
It  is  difficult  to  see  how,  without  this  particular  work 
of  Charles,  the  subsequent  course  of  history  could  have 
been  what  it  was.  That  this  course  involved  many 
evil  consequences  in  its  train  cannot  be  denied.  But 
no  forward  step  is  ever  taken  in  history  without  evil 
consequences.     Yet  these  turn  out  in  the  long  run  to 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  169 

be  incidental.  So  we  think  that  providential  leading 
is  seen  as  much  in  the  founding  of  the  Prankish  king- 
dom, and  the  revival  of  the  western  empire,  as  in  any 
chapter  of  what  is  called  church  history.* 

B.     THE    EAST 
LITERATURE 

Bury:  The  Later  Roma7i  Empire.     2  vols. 

Oman:  Byzanti?ie  Empire. 

We  have  already  seen  how  the  freedom  of  the  church 
was  imperilled  from  the  time  of  Constantine.  Justinian 
(527-565)  was  not  only  a  great  emperor  but  he  was  also 
a  theologian,  and  he  almost  absolutely  controlled 
church  and  state. f  After  the  death  of  Justinian  the 
emperors  tried  to  retain  all  his  ecclesiastical  preroga- 
tives. 

B.    Church  Extension 

LITERATURE 

MacClear:  History  of  Christia?i  Missions  in  the  Middle 
Ages, 

Smith,  George:  Short  History  of  Missions. 

Smith,  T. :  Mediceval  Missiojis. 

Walsh:  Heroes  of  the  Mission  Field. 

Neander:  History  of  Christian  Omrch.  See  especially 
"Missions  to  the  Teutons." 

Workman:  Church  of  the  West.  Chapter  on  'The 
Winning  of  the  Heathen,"  Vol.  I. 

Smith,  I.  Gregory:  Boniface. 

*For  information  on  Charles  the  Great  see:  Einhard  :  Life 
of  Charles  the  Great.  Mombert :  Charles  the  Great.  Cutts : 
Charlejnagne.  Hodgkin  :  Charles  the  Great.  Wells  :  Charle- 
magne.    Davis :  Charlemagtie. 

fSee  Hutton:  Church  i7i  Sixth  Century. 


170    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

During  the  entire  mediaeval  period  there  was  need 
of  missionary  activity.  Christianity  had  not  held  its 
own  even  where  it  had  been  most  deeply  rooted. 
Corruption  had  crept  in  and  many  of  the  churches  in 
Italy  and  Gaul  had  degenerated.  Their  leading  mem- 
bers were  guilty  of  many  vices.  The  churches  them- 
selves needed  missionaries. 

We  are  to  note,  too,  an  important  change  of  method 
during  the  mediaeval  period.  We  have  seen  how  in 
the  ancient  period  Christianity  spread,  after  the 
Apostolic  Age,  mainly  from  individual  to  individual, 
and  how  each  individual  became  a  center  and  source 
of  light,  and  how  the  Christians  were  rather  wide- 
spread than  numerous. 

But  in  the  mediaeval  period  attention  is  given  to  the 
conversion  of  nations.  Beginning  with  Gregory  the 
Great,  missionary  effort  becomes  more  and  more 
organized.  We  accordingly  begin  to  hear  of  missions 
to  the  English,  to  the  Germans,  and  so  on. 

Again,  in  the  earliest  years  of  the  church  the 
heathen  were  approached  with  the  simple  message  of 
the  Gospel,  as  preached  by  the  Lord  and  His  disciples. 
But  now  the  great  doctrinal  controversies  have  been 
waged,  Nicaea,  and  Constantinople,  and  Chalcedon 
have  spoken,  and  the  heathen  are  approached  with  a  defi- 
nite system  of  doctrine  and  ecclesiastical  machinery. 

But  Christianity  and  the  new  civilization  to  whose 
formation  it  had  contributed  so  much  were  seriously 
threatened  by  the  conquests  of  the  Saracens.  They 
were  encroaching  on  the  east  and  the  south  and  the 
west.  They  were  decisively  driven  back  by  Charles 
Martel  at  Tours  in  732.  But  they  established  them- 
selves in  Spain,  Northern  Africa,  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
remained  a  perpetual  menace. 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  171 

Moreover  the  conversion  and  assimilation  of  the 
barbarians  was  a  very  difficult  undertaking. 

All  these  obstacles,  internal  and  external,  had  to  be 
met  and  overcome  by  a  Christianity  which  had 
departed  very  far  from  the  example  and  precepts  of  its 
Founder. 

But  while  darkness  seems  to  have  settled  down  over 
the  western  world,  there  was  one  bright  spot — "The 
Island  of  the  Saints."  In  Ireland  the  life  of  the  early 
faith  lived  on.  Armagh  had  become  a  great  intellec- 
tual and  spiritual  center.  From  the  days  when  Patrick 
flourished — about  440 — the  cloisters  which  he  estab- 
lished had  multiplied  and  spread  their  influence,  which 
was  to  last  through  the  Middle  Ages  and  extend  far  and 
wide.  The  Irish  church  was  independent.  There  is 
no  positive  evidence  that  it  ever  had  any  vital  connec- 
tion with  Rome — it  rather  seems  to  have  lacked  the 
organization  that  Rome  would  have  given  to  it.* 

A.     THE    CONVERSION    OF    THE    ENGLISH 

The  Roman  mission  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  took  place 
in  596.  It  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Roman 
church  which  later  came  into  conflict  with  the  Celtic 
church.  This  conflict  ended  with  a  complete  victory 
of  the  Roman  church  at  the  synod  of  Whitby — 664. 
The  Celtic  church  was  absorbed. 

In  rapid  succession  Kent,  Essex,  Wessex,  Sussex, 
East  Anglia,  Northumbria  and  Mercia  were  converted. 
England  was  "Romanized,"  but  did  not  in  every  case 
submit  to  Rome. 

*See  Finlay:  Irela7id  and  the  Irish.  Healey  :  The  Ancient 
Irish  Church.  Sanderson  :  The  Story  of  St.  Patrick,  Wright : 
The  Writings  of  St.  Patrick.  Cathcart :  A  ticient  British  and 
Irish  Churches — Life  and  Labors  of  St.  Patrick. 


172     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

B,     THE    CONVERSION    OF   GERMANY 

We  have  seen  how  Ireland  became  the  center  of 
learning  and  devotion,  and  how  the  Irish  church  was 
finally  overcome  in  Britain  by  the  Roman  church. 
But  the  first  missionaries  to  the  Germans  went  from 
Ireland. 

Columbianus  (540-615)  with  a  company  of  monks  went 
into  Gaul.  Here  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  easy- 
going Christianity  of  the  Franks.  His  rigid  concep- 
tion of  life  was  not  acceptable  to  the  Burgundian  count. 
Hence  he  proceeded  to  Zurich,  and  thence  to  Bregenz 
in  Switzerland.  His  success  here  was  little  better. 
At  last  he  found  himself  in  Italy,  where  later  on  his 
pupil  Gallus  founded  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall. 

Friesland  was  entered  by  another  band  of  Irish 
monks,  led  by  Willibrord,  an  Englishman — 657-741. 
He  appears  not  to  have  been  very  successful.  His 
labors  resulted  only  in  the  establishment  of  a  bishopric 
connected  with  Rome  at  Utrecht. 

These  earlier  attempts  prepared,  in  some  sense,  the 
way  for  Winifred,  known  best  as  Boniface.  He  was 
born  in  Devonshire,  England — 680.  He  had  flattering 
prospects  of  a  brilliant  career  in  the  church  at  home. 
But  he  chose  the  harder  way  of  a  missionary  to  the 
Germans. 

His  first  labors  were  in  conjunction  with  Willibrord 
in  Friesland.  A  little  later  he  went  to  Rome.  Here 
he  was  instructed  in  the  forms  of  the  church  and  in 
ecclesiastical  law.  Armed  with  a  commission  from 
the  pope  he  returned  to  his  field  prepared  for  more 
intelligent  and  aggressive  work.  Through  the  pope's 
influence  he  had  the  protection  of  Charles  Martel. 
His  permanent  work  was  done   in  Thuringia,  Upper 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  173 

Hesse,  and  Bavaria.  He  at  last  returned  to  Friesland, 
where  he  received  the  martyr's  crown  in  755. 

Among  his  most  distinguished  disciples  were 
Gregory  of  Utrecht  and  Sturm  of  Fulda,  the  founder 
of  the  monastery  of  Fulda. 

It  will  be  observed  that  his  missionary  labors 
extended  over  a  large  territory. 

Through  Boniface  the  German  church  was  perma- 
nently connected  with  Rome.  During  his  long  life  he 
maintained  a  spotless  purity  of  character,  yielding  in 
no  respect  to  the  corruptions  of  his  age.* 

C.   Mohammed 
LITERATURE 

Irving:  Mahomet  aiid  tlie  Saracens.     2  vols. 

Renan:  Maliomet  and  the  Origi?i  of  Islam. 

Muir:  Life  of  Mahomet  and  History  of  Islam  to  the 
Hegira.     4  vols. 

Freeman:  History  a?id  Conquest  of  the  Saracens, 

La  Beaume:  Le  Koran. 

Palmer:    The  Koran.     English. 

We  have  already  seen  that  while  the  missionaries  in 
the  west  were  busy  building  and  extending  the  king- 
dom a  new  foe  arose  in  the  east,  and  threatened  the 
destruction  of  all  Christendom.  This  dangerous 
adversary  was  Mohammedanism.  It  arose  among  the 
Arabs,  a  people  full  of  energy,  highly  imaginative,  and 
facile  in  speech.  For  centuries  they  had  been  under 
the  influence  of  Judaism,  and  they  had  seen  consider- 
able of  Christianity  in  its  corrupted  forms  existing  in 
Arabia.     This  furnished  a  good  soil   and  climate  for 

*See  Hauck;  Kirchengeschichte  Deutschlands.  Bk.  I,  pp. 
381-546.  This  is  a  masterly  review  of  the  missionary  activity  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Missionaries  in  Germany  and  their  relations  to 
Rome. 


174    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

the  development  of  a  new  prophet.  He  came  in  the 
person  of  Mohammed,  who  was  born  of  the  stock  of 
Ishmael  about  570.  He  was  mystical,  contemplative, 
imaginative,  solitary,  courageous.  He  suffered  from 
epileptic  fits,  and  this  may  in  part  account  for  the 
vividness  of  his  imagination.  He  seems  very  early  to 
have  had  an  impression  that  he  was  to  be  a  great 
reformer. 

His  doctrines  were  syncretistic — Jewish,  Christian, 
with  additions  of  his  own.  They  have  their  strength 
as  well  as  their  weakness.  Their  strength  is  seen  in 
the  emphasis  which  is  put  on  the  unity  and  infinite 
sublimity  of  God,  and  their  utter  abhorrence  of  all 
forms  of  idolatry. 

But  the  dependence  of  man  upon  God  is  so  absolute 
that  at  a  later  stage  it  developed  into  a  complete  fatal- 
ism. The  necessary  consequence  of  this  doctrine  is 
the  discouragement  of  thrift,  effort  and  enterprise. 

The  monotheism  is  so  extreme  as  to  make  the  separa- 
tion of  God  and  man  infinite.  There  is  thus  no  basis 
for  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  divinity  and  incarna- 
tion of  Christ.  The  love  of  God  made  manifest  to 
men  is  therefore  out  of  the  question. 

Islam's  doctrine  has  no  place  for  the  brotherhood 
of  man — instead  it  inspires  race  hatred. 

Its  polygamous  teaching  destroys  the  family  and 
undermines  the  foundations  of  society.  Mohammed 
allowed  himself  eleven  wives,  while  to  his  disciples  he 
allowed  but  four. 

That  civilization  owes  much  to  the  Saracenic  culti- 
vation of  learning  will  be  admitted  by  all.  But  when 
the  most  liberal  recognition  has  been  shown  to 
Mohammedanism  the  verdict  of  history  must  ever  be 
that  desolation  has  followed  in  its  train. 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  175 

D.    The  Growth  of  Centralization 

The  movement  towards  centralization  which  ad- 
vanced so  far  during  the  ancient  period  continued  in 
the  mediaeval  period  until  it  reaches  its  climax. 
Several  new  impulses  historical  and  personal  come  in 
between  the  sixth  and  ninth  centuries  to  hasten  the 
process  so  well  begun. 

Among  these  are: 

A.     THE    DECLINE    OF   THE    METROPOLITANS 

The  lower  orders  of  the  clergy  objected  to  the  dicta- 
tions of  superiors  who  were  near  them,  but  very  will- 
ingly recognized  the  authority  of  someone  who  was 
far  away.  This  led  them  to  be  obedient  to  the  legates 
of  the  pope.  This  is  seen  especially  among  the 
Franks.  Perhaps  the  best  illustration  is  the  case  of 
Boniface  the  missionary,  who  "strenuously  resisted 
every  act  of  interference  in  the  spirit  of  the  Prankish 
prelates;  but  in  other  parts  he  labored  from  the  first  to 
organize  the  metropolitan  system,  and  to  use  it  as  the 
special  instrument  of  Rome." 

B.  THE  SARACENIC  CONQUESTS 

We  can  easily  understand  how  the  encroachments  of 
the  crescent  would  unite  the  followers  of  the  cross. 
The  west  was  able  to  maintain  itself  in  the  face  of  its 
enemy,  although  oftentimes  the  situation  was  very 
serious.  This  led  to  more  perfect  organization,  and 
more  complete  centralization.  Naturally  the  pope  was 
regarded  as  the  head  of  western  Christendom. 

But  the  east  was  unable  to  stand  against  the  invad- 
ers. Most  of  the  eastern  patriarchs  were  overrun  and 
ruined.     And  so  the  great  patriarchs  who  were  silenced 


176     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

by  the  Saracens  were  at  the  same  time  shorn  of  their 
power  to  oppose  the  designs  of  the  pope.  We  thus  see 
how  directly  and  indirectly  the  conquests  of  the 
Saracens  contributed  to  the  growth  of  centralization. 

C.     GREGORY   THE   GREAT    (59O-604) 

This  remarkable  man  had  a  great  diversity  of  gifts. 
He  was  fiery,  zealous,  charitable,  quick  to  discern  the 
tendencies  of  his  times  and  to  use  them.  He  had, 
besides,  administrative  ability  of  a  high  order. 
Through  this  splendid  combination  of  gifts  and  quali- 
fications he  gathered  up  into  himself  the  lines  of 
history  and  determined  the  future  course  of  the 
papacy. 

Consciously  or  unconsciously,  he  was  controlled  by 
the  idea  that  the  authority  of  Peter  was  universal. 
He  was  the  successor  of  Peter,  and  he  was  conse- 
quently the  source  of  all  authority.  Without  making 
himself  offensive  he  practically  succeeded  in  acquiring 
almost  universal  dominion.  And  yet,  out  of  respect 
for  his  colleagues  he  refused  to  be  called  CEcumenical 
Bishop.  Instead  he  chose  "with  shrewd  humility"  to 
be  called  the  "servant  of  the  servants  of  God" — servus 
serzwriun  Dei.  He  had  a  perfectly  clear  conception  of 
his  duties:  "To  hold  the  metropolitans  independence 
on  the  Roman  see,  to  restore  the  rights  of  the  bishops, 
to  crush  heresy  and  schism,  to  revive  the  spiritual  life 
of  the  church,  to  make  monasticism  an  effectual  instru- 
ment of  good,  to  send  the  Gospel  to  the  barbarous 
heathen;  these  were  some  of  his  aims,  these  were  some 
of  the  duties,  he  conceived,  of  the  successor  of  Peter" 
(Kellett:  Gregory  the  Great,  quoted  by  Workman,  pp. 
17-19). 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  177 

D.     HADRIAN    I.   (772-795) 

After  the  death  of  Gregory  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  passed  without  great  progress  in  centralization. 
A  long  list  of  thirty-three  popes  followed,  some  of 
them  in  quick  succession.  But  Hadrian  I.  takes  a 
decisive  step.  He  was  the  first  to  claim,  in  782,  that 
the  apostolic  see  was  the  head  of  all  the  world  and  of 
all  the  churches  of  God.  This  claim  continued  to  be 
resisted  by  the  eastern  patriarchs — but  it  became  more 
generally  accepted  in  the  west.* 

E.     THE    CORONATION    OF    CHARLES 

We  are  to  remember  that  Pope  Leo  HI.  was  tem- 
poral ruler  of  Rome,  and  claimed  to  be  the  primate  of 
all  Christendom.  In  the  act  of  coronation  he  resumed 
a  right  that  since  476  had  been  relegated  to  the  new 
capital  in  the  east.  As  long  as  Charles  lived  the  pope 
remained  outwardly  subservient.  But  the  moment  his 
strong  hand  relaxed  its  grasp  the  discordant  elements 
asserted  themselves,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  confusion 
the  papacy  came  forth  and  established  itself  as  the 
center  of  the  states-system  of  the  west.  And  this  met 
with  a  favorable  response  in  the  aspiration  for  univer- 
sal brotherhood  which  men  had  learned  from  Chris- 
tianity. 

E.    Doctrinal  Developments  and  Controversies 

During  most  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  the 
Bible  continued  to  occupy  a  central  position  of 
authority  and  reverence.  "It  was  the  treasury  of 
supernatural  wisdom  and  the  foundation  of  religious 

*Hardwick,     pp.  40-41. 


178     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

truth."  It  was  expected  that  those  who  could  read 
would  investigate  it.  No  one,  as  was  later  the  case, 
could  expect  to  enter  holy  orders  without  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  Bible. 

A.     THE    STATE    OF    THEOLOGY    IN    THE    WEST* 

It  has  already  been  observed  that  Augustinianism  as 
opposed  to  Pelagianism  was  not  completely  accepted 
in  the  west.  Hilary  of  Aries  mildly  protested.  John 
Cassianus,  the  founder  of  the  cloister  of  Marseilles, 
was  a  vigorous  dissenter.  Predestination  was  probably 
caricatured  by  an  anonymous  writer  in  the  work  called 
Prcedestinatus.  Out  of  this  opposition  arose  what  is 
known  as  Semi-Pelagianism — or  what  might  with 
almost  equal  propriety  have  been  called  "Semi-Augus- 
tinianism."  These  lines  of  opposition  converged  in 
Gregory  the  Great.  The  theology  of  Gregory  is 
learned  from  his  thirty-five  books  of  Moralia,  founded 
on  the  Book  of  Job,  and  his  iorty  Homilies  on  the  Gos- 
pels, and  his  Letters.  As  we  have  seen,  Gregory  was  a 
great  organizer  and  administrator.  But  in  theology 
he  did  not  have  a  creative  mind.  What  he  taught  he 
had  learned,  and  what  he  had  learned  he  had  not  been 
able  fully  to  digest  and  assimilate.  He  stood  at  an 
important  turning-point  in  theological  development. 
He  was  the  connecting  link  of  the  ancient  and 
mediaeval  periods.  He  was  the  last  of  the  Church 
Fathers,  but  hardly  the  first  of  the  scholastics.  The 
period  for  close  theological  investigation  and  defini- 
tion— for  the  interpretation  of  the  fathers,  and  the 
determination  of  the  relation  of  theology  to  philos- 
ophy— although   near  at    hand,    has   not  yet    arrived. 

*See  Loofs  :  Leitfaden.     pp.  244-248. 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  179 

The  field  of  theology  and  philosophy  was  already 
bounded.  But  cultivation  within  the  boundaries  was 
yet  to  take  place. 

The  basis  of  Gregory's  theology  was  Augustinian. 
This  is  seen  in  his  exalted  conception  of  God  and  His 
all-holy  attributes;  in  his  conception  of  the  power  and 
destructiveness  of  evil;  and  in  that  of  man's  utter 
helplessness  to  do  anything  for  his  own  salvation. 
Gregory  insisted,  too,  on  internal  holiness,  without 
which  no  forms  or  outward  exercises  could  avail  any- 
thing. But  yet  he  "drops  the  idea  of  a  grace  that  is 
irresistible,  and  of  a  freedom  that  is  totally  lost." 
Many  of  Augustine's  suggestions  become  positive 
teachings.  There  is  a  tendency  on  all  sides  to 
externalism,  and  while  the  later  ages  inherited  the 
ecclesiastical  vestment  of  Augustine,  his  spirit  fell 
back. 

The  principal  controversy  of  the  period  was  that  of 
Adoptionism.  This  controversy  began  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighth  century.  The  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  Elipandus,  was  engaged  in  a  controversy  with 
Migetius — and  in  this  controversy  had  been  led  to  put 
special  emphasis  "in  the  person  of  Christ  to  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  eternal  Son  of  God,  and  His 
human  appearance."  He  was  attacked  for  his  posi- 
tion, and  accused  of  reviving  Nestorianism. 

The  position  of  Elipandus  was  that  "Christ  is  a  son 
by  nature  only  in  His  divine  nature;  according  to  His 
human  nature,  on  the  other  hand,  He  was  a  son  by 
adoption."  As  pushed  by  his  enemies  his  doctrine 
amounted  to  a  denial  of  the  incarnation. 

Adoptionism  was  condemned  at  Ratisbon,  792; 
Frankfort,  794;  Aachen,  799;  Rome,  800.  It  finally 
died  out. 


180    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

B.     THEOLOGY   IN    THE   EAST 

Here  should  be  noticed  the  revival  of  some  of  the 
old  Christological  controversies  of  the  preceding  period 
— as  Monophysitism  and  Monothelitism. 

a.  John  of  Damascus 
LITERATURE 

Lupton :  St.  JoJm  of  Damascus. 

Seeberg:  Lehrbuch.    Vol  II,  pp.  231-4. 

Loofs:  Leitfaden,     pp.  184-188. 

Harnack:  Hist,  of  Dog^na.     Index. 

Although  theological  interest  is  beginning  to  v^ane 
in  the  east  there  are  still  many  evidences  of  activity, 
as  is  seen  in  such  men  as  Moschus,  Climacus,  Sophro- 
nius,  and  Maximus  the  Confessor — all  early  in  the 
seventh  century. 

But  the  eighth  century  had  one  distinguished  repre- 
sentative in  John  of  Damascus.  The  exact  date  of  his 
birth  is  not  known,  but  it  was  not  far  from  700.  His 
father  held  an  office  under  the  caliph.  He  also  for  a 
while  was  an  officer  in  the  Mohammedan  service. 
But  he  finally  went  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Sabas,  from 
which  he  sent  forth  his  numerous  writings.  His  most 
important   work    was    his    Source  of  Kiiowledge — ir-fi^-q 

y»/ CO  crews. 

"To  a  certain  extent  it  was  the  gathering  together 
of  the  outcome  of  patristic  theology,  and  in  its 
arrangement  significant  for  the  development  which  the 
latter  had  followed.  Book  I,  philosophico-dialectical, 
gives  the  logical  definitions  which  were  to  pass  into 
the  service  of  dogmatics;  heathen  wisdom,  which  is  to 
serve  truth  as  female  slaves,  a  king.  Aristotle,  Por- 
phyry, and  Ammonius  are  here  the  guides  which  have 
long  been  in  the  service  of  the  church.     Book  II  con- 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  181 

tains  a  history  of  heresy  on  the  basis  of  the  knowledge 
supplied  by  the  older  Greek  heresiologists.  Book  III, 
a  presentation  of  the  church's  doctrinal  belief,  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  the  most  eminent  fathers, 
especially  the  Greeks,  but  also  of  one  of  the  Latins, 
especially  on  account  of  his  participation  in  the  Chris- 
tological  conflicts.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  matter 
the  example  of  Theodoret  may  be  recognized" 
(Moeller:  Vol.  II,  p.  24). 

In  John  of  Damascus  we  find  the  starting-point  of 
eastern  scholasticism.  His  influence  on  western 
scholasticism  can  hardly  be  doubted. 

b.  The  Iconoclastic  Controversy 

The  worship  of  images  is  a  perversion  of  a  principle 
which  in  itself  is  good.  Pictures  and  images  have 
always  been  useful  in  the  instruction  of  children.  The 
simple  and  unlettered  are  by  their  use  often  made  to 
understand  where  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible. 
Even  the  educated  find  themselves  constantly  striving 
to  express  their  ideas  in  concrete  form.  Besides,  pic- 
tures and  images  have  a  use  in  exciting  devotion. 

Nothing,  then,  is  better  established  than  the 
psychological  basis  of  image  worship  or  even  of 
idolatry.  The  difficulty,  then,  lies  not  in  the  use  but 
the  abuse  of  pictures  and  images.  Following  this 
natural  and  proper  instinct  of  human  nature  through 
the  first  six  centuries  of  our  era  the  highly  imaginative 
and  sensuous  Greeks  had  often  fallen  into  a  blind  and 
superstitious  worship  of  images  and  pictures  of  saints. 
In  the  west  it  was  claimed  that  the  custom  had  not 
been  abused. 

The  exciting  cause  of  the  controversy  was  the  taunts 
of  the  Mohammedans  and  Jews,  who  claimed  that  the 


182    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Christians  had  fallen  into  idolatry.  The  Emperor  Leo 
was  greatly  incensed  by  these  taunts,  and  determined 
to  remove  the  occasion  for  them. 

The  result  was  two  edicts.  The  first,  726,  forbade 
kneeling  before  images  and  pictures.  This  edict  was 
strongly  resisted.  John  of  Damascus  appeared  as  a 
doughty  champion  of  images.  His  T/iree  Orations  were 
called  out  by  the  controversy.  The  principal  argu- 
ments are  contained  in  the  first.* 

The  second  edict  came  out  in  730.  It  went  much 
farther  than  the  first  and  proscribed  images,  and 
doomed  them  to  unsparing  demolition.  The  cross 
alone  was  excepted.  This  edict  was  received  with  no 
favor  whatever  at  Rome.  A  serious  controversy  arose 
and  spread  over  a  wide  area.  It  was  finally  settled  at 
the  second  council  of  Nicaea  in  737.  The  decision  is 
as  follows: 

"Bowing  and  honorable  adoration  should  be  offered 
to  all  sacred  images;  but  this  external  and  inferior 
worship  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  true  and 
supreme  worship  which  belongs  exclusively  to  God." 

Shortly  after  the  council,  Charles  the  Great  made  an 
elaborate  reply  to  the  positions  taken,  and  the  reply 
became  known  as  the  Caroline  Books — Libri  Carolini. 

The  official  title  of  the  work  ran  as  follows:  "The 
work  of  the  illustrious  Charles,  king  of  the  Franks, 
against  the  foolish  and  presumptuous  resolutions  of  a 
Greek  synod  in  favor  of  image-worship." 

c.  The  Controversy  Cone er?iing the  ''Filioque" 
Through  the  influence  of  Augustine  the  equality  of 
the  three  persons  in  the  Trinity  became  an  accepted 
doctrine  of  the  western  church.     In  accordance  with 

*For  outline  see  Neander,  Vol.  V,  p.  286. 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  183 

this  doctrine  at  the  third  council  of  Toledo,  589,  the 
expression  filioque  was  added  to  the  creed  of  Nicaea 
and  Constantinople. 

But  in  the  eastern  church,  while  the  consubstan- 
tiality  of  the  Son  was  firmly  held,  His  subordination  to 
the  Father  was  fully  maintained.  Here,  then,  would 
be  the  basis  for  a  controversy.  It  arose  when  western 
monks  in  Jerusalem  sang  the  creed  w'xih  filioqtie  added. 
This  meant  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded  from  the 
Father  a?id  the  Son,  but  not  from  the  Father  alone. 

Charles  the  Great  approved  of  the  addition — Leo 
HI.  seems  to  have  vacillated — but  the  addition 
remained. 

d.  The  Paulicians^ 

The  Paulicians  originated  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century,  and  gave  much  trouble  to  the  eastern 
church.  The  founder  of  the  Paulicians  was  Constan- 
tine.  It  was  charged  that  their  doctrine  was  syncretis- 
tic  and  dualistic.  They  probably  descended  from  the 
Marcionites.  They  rejected  the  Old  Testament  as  the 
work  of  the  Demiurge,  who,  in  opposition  to  the  good 
God,  is  the  creator  and  lord  of  the  world.  He  also 
made  the  human  body  out  of  matter  which  is  the 
source  of  all  evil.  Thus  the  soul  of  man  has  been 
imprisoned  in  the  body.  The  Redeemer,  apparently 
born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  came  in  a  heavenly  body, 
and  seemed  to  die  on  the  cross  for  the  redemxption  of 
man. 

They  were  also  accused  of  being  Manichaeans — and 
they  have  resemblances.  But  they  denied  any  such 
relationship. 

They  rejected  all  outward  means  of  grace,  such    as 

*See  Conybeare  :  Key  of  Truth. 


184    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  especially  the 
later  developments  of  Sacramentarianism. 

The  Paulicians  were  severely  persecuted,  but  they 
made  many  converts,  and  divided  into  many  sects 
which  continued  into  the  ninth  century,  after  which 
they  disappear. 

These  views  of  the  Paulicians  will  probably  have  to 
be  modified  in  the  light  of  T/ie  Key  of  Truth.  Possibly 
the  editor  and  commentator  betrays  somewhat  of  the 
zeal  of  the  specialist.  He  says:  "The  Paulician 
church  was  not  the  national  church  of  any  particular 
race,  but  an  old  form  of  the  apostolic  church,  and 
it  included  within  itself  Syrians,  Greeks,  Armenians, 
Africans,  Latins,  and  various  other  races.  Finding 
refuge  in  southeastern  Armenia  when  it  was  nearly 
extirpated  in  the  Roman  empire,  it  there  nursed  its 
forces  in  comparative  security,  under  the  protection  of 
the  Persians  and  Arabs,  and  prepared  itself  for  that 
magnificent  career  of  missionary  enterprise  in  the 
Greek  world  which  the  sources  relate  with  so  much 
bitterness." 

F.    Christian  Thought  and  Literature 

A.     SCHOOLS 
LITERATURE 

Mullinger,  J.  K. :   The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great. 

Eashdall :  The  History  of  Mediceval  Universities.  Earl  i er 
chapters. 

Mombert:  Chapter  on  the  ''Schools  of  Charles." 

Werner:  Alciiin. 

Sickel:  Alcuinstiidien. 

The  connection  with  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  cul- 
ture was  never  entirely  broken,  although  it  ebbed  very 
low.     But  when  Charles  became  king  of  the  Franks 


From  Gregoty  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  185 

with  the  true  intuitions  of  a  statesman  he  saw  the 
necessity  for  schools  and  culture.  He  at  the  begin- 
ning had  little  that  could  be  called  literary  culture, 
but  he  set  to  work  with  his  characteristic  energy  to 
acquire  it  and  diffuse  it  among  his  people.  When  cul- 
ture was  at  its  lowest  ebb  it  liv^ed  on  in  individuals 
such  as  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  in  the  Irish  convents. 
Accordingly,  when  Charles  began  his  search  for  leaders 
he  was  able  to  find  such  men  as  Peter  of  Pisa,  and  Paul 
the  Deacon,  and  Alcuin.  Peter  was  a  grammarian, 
Paul  became  the  soul  of  all  efforts  for  the  promotion 
of  learned  and  theological  culture  in  the  Prankish 
kingdom."  Alcuin  became  "the  center  of  the  circle 
of  humanistic  excitement  which  rejoiced  over  the 
attainment  of  skill  in  Latin  versification,  and  took 
pleasure  in  literary  correspondence.  In  787  Charles 
commanded  all  bishops  and  abbots  to  erect  cathedral 
and  monastic  schools — the  scientific  instruction  in 
which  was  to  have  its  main  object  in  theology,  the 
exposition  of  Biblical  Scriptures."  Thus  we  have  a 
revival  of  learning.  Tried  by  modern  standards  it 
would  of  course  not  stand  the  test.  Neither  Alcuin 
nor  Paul  shows  much  originality,  and  it  has  been  sug- 
gested that  we  ought  not  to  inquire  too  closely  into 
Charles's  knowledge  of  Latin.  But  in  many  respects 
this  renaissance  is  like  the  later  Renaissance  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Both  met  the  necessities  of  their 
ages — and  made  invaluable  contributions  to  the  suc- 
ceeding ages. 

B.     VERNACULAR    TRANSLATIONS    OF    THE    BIBLE 

It  will  be  readily  seen  how  the  barbarian  invaders, 
with  their  different  languages  and  dialects  overrun- 
ning the  Roman  provinces,   would   cause  a  veritable 


186     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

confusion  of  tongues.  In  many  cases  they  neglected 
their  own  languages  and  learned  Latin — and  this 
resulted  in  a  debasement  of  the  Latin.  But  where 
they  did  not  learn  Latin  the  clergy  found  it  necessary 
to  learn  the  language  of  those  to  whom  they  preached. 
The  need  was  at  once  felt  of  vernacular  translations  of 
the  Bible,  and  efforts  were  made  to  meet  this  urgent 
need.  The  difficulties  were  of  course  almost  insuper- 
able. 

The  pioneer  in  this  work  was  Ulfilas,  back  in  the 
fourth  century,  c.  313-388,  whose  "translation  of  the 
Bible  was  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  civilization 
of  the  Goths  and  the  foundation  stone  of  German 
literature." 

An  impulse  was  probably  given  to  Bible  translation 
among  the  English  by  Caedmon,  680.  The  stories 
about  his  paraphrases  are  extremely  doubtful  if  taken 
in  their  amplification. 

But  an  eminent  representative  of  Christian  culture 
arose  in  Baeda,  673-735.  It  is  certain  that  he  trans- 
ated  the  Gospel  of  John.  He  also  wrote  T/ie  Ecclesias- 
tical History  of  the  English  Nation,  which  is  our  principal 
source  for  the  Anglo-Saxon  church.  He  has  been 
called,  also,  the  father  of  English  national  education. 

Another  of  these  early  translators  is  Aldholm,  who 
died  709.     He  translated  the  Psalms. 

It  seems  probable  that  there  were  many  other  pro- 
ductions of  a  similar  nature  but  that  they  were 
destroyed  by  the  incursions  of  the  Danes. 

C.     LIVES    OF    SAINTS 

It  is  natural  when  a  good  man  dies  to  magnify  his 
strong  points  and  minimize  his  weak  ones.  He  thus 
becomes  an  example  to  be  followed,  as  well  as  a  source 


Prom  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  187 

of  spiritual  instruction.  In  a  highly  imaginative  and 
uncritical  age  this  disposition  may  lead  to  evil  conse- 
quences.    It  was  so  in  our  period. 

The  impulse  was  especially  given  by  Gregory  of 
Tours,  who  died  in  593.  The  number  of  lives  of  the 
saints  was  very  large.  They  were  often  written  in  the 
vernacular.  They  were  very  widely  read,  and  their 
influence  can  hardly  be  estimated.  While  upon  the 
whole  this  influence  seems  to  have  been  good,  the 
saints  were  so  embellished  and  made  so  perfect  that 
they  became  objects  of  a  lower  kind  of  worship. 

As  the  number  of  saints  increased  veneration  devel- 
oped. This  veneration  extended  to  relics  and  later  on 
it  reached  the  utmost  limit  of  extravagance. 

The  first  instance  of  canonization  by  the  pope  is, 
according  to  some,  the  case  of  Swibert,  about  800. 
According  to  others  it  was  the  case  of  Ulrich,  Arch- 
bishop of  Augsburg,  993.* 

It  would  be  untrue  to  say  that  among  the  more  intel- 
ligent these  dangers  were  not  seen,  and  that  efforts 
were  not  made  to  keep  the  masses  within  proper 
bounds.  For  instance,  Charles  the  Great  issued  in  779 
a  capitulary,  De  pseudographiis  et  dubiis  iiarrationibtis^ 
to  withstand  the  superstitions  of  his  age — e.  g.,  the 
baptizing  of  bells. 

But  all  these  facts  go  to  show  what  is  the  general 
stream  of  tendency. 

G.    Christian  Life 

In  harmony  with  the  general  tendency  and  spirit  of 

the  age  we  find  a  great  development  of  festivals.     The 

festival  of   the  Assumption   originated   in  a  spurious 

legend.     It  was  said  that  the  apostles  assembled  at  the 

*See  Hardwick,  p.  90,  n. 


188    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

deathbed  of  Mary  and  that  they  saw  her  carried  away 
to  heaven  by  a  band  of  angels.  Other  festivals  were 
those  of  the  Nativity,  the  Circumcision,  the  Ascension 
of  the  Lord,  All  Saints.  This  last  is  usually  assigned 
to  this  period,  but  it  was  used  long  before  by  the 
Christians  of  the  east. 

Monasticism  in  this  period  still  in  the  main  held  its 
own.  The  Benedictines  especially  had  become  models 
for  all  the  west,  and  were  exceedingly  popular.  They 
were  industrious.  Trackless  forests  were  turned  into 
gardens  and  fields.  Many  of  their  establishments 
became  centers  near  or  around  which  important  cities 
grew  up. 

They  were  also  great  missionaries,  and  they  were  the 
conservators  of  learning  in  a  wild  and  lawless  age. 
In  their  private  lives  they  maintained  a  good  degree 
of  strictness. 

But  we  have  already  seen  that  the  Christianity  of 
this  period  has  departed  very  far  from  the  original, 
and  on  the  whole  the  decline  continues  rapidly. 
Superstition  and  legalism  have  intrenched  themselves. 
Men  have  less  concern  about  the  inward  condition  of 
the  heart — and  are  controlled  more  and  more  by  the 
outward  and  physical.  As  manifestations  of  this 
decline  we  have  penances,  indulgences,  masses  for  the 
dead,  ordeals,  pilgrimages  and  confession. 

Exactly  in  line  with  these  new  or  enlarged  develop- 
ments we  have  to  mention  an  ignorant  and  immoral 
clergy.  The  way  is  thus  prepared  for  an  appalling 
degeneration  in  the  next  two  periods. 

Yet,  when  we  have  admitted  it  all,  we  take  courage 
in  the  fact  that  there  are  still  many  individuals  whose 
abilities  are  of  the  highest  order,  whose  characters  and 
lives  are  absolutely  pure.     These  men  shine  as  bright 


From  Gregory  I.  to  Death  of  Charles  the  Great  189 

lights  in  the  general  darkness.  They  are  the  salt  that 
has  not  lost  its  savor,  and  if  they  apparently  do  not 
have  much  influence  they  at  least  stem  the  tide  and 
save  the  ship  from  utter  destruction  until  evil  begins 
to  work  its  own  cure.  Such  men  were  Aidan, 
Gregory,  Eligius,  Baeda  and  Alcuin.* 

H.    English  Church  History 
LITERATURE 

Wakeman:  History  of  the  Church  of  E?igland.  A  very 
able  outline  covering  the  whole  ground  from  the  High 
Church  point  of  view. 

Cutts:  Tur7ii7ig  Points  in  English  Church  History .  Point 
of  view  same  as  Wakeman. 

Hague:  Church  of  E?igla?id before  the  Reformation.  From 
the  Low  Church  point  of  view.f 

Rannie:  Historical  Outlines  of  the  English  Constitution, 

A.     THE    BRITISH    CHURCH    (2OO-597) 

It  is  not  known  when  or  how  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced into  Britain.  There  are  numerous  legends. 
One  is  that  Paul  visited  the  island.  The  probabilities 
are  that  about  the  opening  of  the  third  century  it  was 
planted  there  by  some  unknown  person. 

At  first  the  bishops  were  equal;  the  sees  were  gradu- 
ally grouped  into  provinces,  and  the  provinces  into 
patriarchates.  The  British  church  seems  to  have 
come  considerably  under  Arian    and    Pelagian   influ- 

*The  student,  for  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  the  church  life  of 
the  mediaeval  period, will  go  to  Lea's  monumental  works  on  The 
History  of  Confession  and  Indutgettces,  and  The  History  of 
Sacerdotal  Celibacy. 

fFor  interesting  reviews  of  Wakeman  and  Hague  by  Dean 
Hulbert  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  see  Ajnerican  Journal  0/ 
Theology,  Vols.  I  and  II. 


190     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ences.     But  in  449  occurred  the  beginning  of  the  Eng- 
lish conquest  of  Britain.* 

B.     THE    CONVERSION    OF    THE    ENGLISH    (597-655) 

When  the  English  came  into  Britain  they  brought 
with  them  their  heathen  worship,  and  their  political 
institutions.  Their  gods  were  numerous,  but  their 
chief  god  was  Wodin. 

In  597  the  missionary  Augustine  landed  in  England 
and  established  himself  at  Canterbury,  which  has  ever 
since  been  the  seat  of  the  Primate  of  all  England. 
As  the  Romish  missions  in  England  grew  it  soon  came 
into  conflict  with  the  Celtic  or  Irish  church.  After  a 
long  and  spirited  conflict  Rome  completely  won  the 
day. 

C.     THEODORE    OF    TARSUS 

This  great  man  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  668.  He  became  the  first  Primate  of  all  England. 
He  set  up  the  ecclesiastical  system  that  in  outward 
form  and  with  some  modifications  has  continued  to  our 
own  times.     The  system  was  as  follows: 

1.  The  Primate  of  all  England. 

2.  Two  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York. 

3.  Bishoprics  or  dioceses,  about  sixteen  in  number. 
They  were  made  conterminous  with  the  kingdoms  and 
tribes,  and  remained  after  these  had  disappeared. 

4.  Parishes  corresponding  to  townships. 

5  Later  on  Archdeaconries  and  Deaneries  corre- 
sponding to  shires  and  hundreds  were  established. 

The  relations  of  church  and  state  were  from  the  first 
organic.  The  bishops  were  members  of  the  assemblies 
and  the  Witenagemote.f 

*See  Gildas;  Baeda;  and  Alexander:  T/i^  A7icie7it  British 
Church.  f  See  Rannie,  p.  19. 


CHAPTER    III 

FROM  CHARLES  THE    GREAT  TO  GREGORY 
Vn.  (HILDEBRAND) 

(814-1073) 
A.    Church  and  State 

The  interest  for  this  period  lies  almost  entirely  in 
the  west.  In  the  east  there  is  a  gradual  decline  of 
both  church  and  state,  but  the  state  is  supreme.  In 
the  west  the  church  develops  great  strength,  and  the 
two  central  and  conspicuous  institutions  about  which 
all  the  movements  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  to  cluster 
become  prominent  and  imposing.  These  two  institu- 
tions are  the  papacy  and  the  empire.  Between  them 
a  fierce  battle  is  to  be  waged — uncertain  at  times,  but 
upon  the  whole  the  church  gradually  prevails. 

The  sources  of  the  income  of  the  church  are  volun- 
tary offerings,  tithes,  uniformly  paid  by  Christians 
since  the  sixth  century,  and  endowments.  The  pro- 
ceeds from  the  endowments  the  emperor  controlled, 
regarding  them  as  "public  loans."  Not  only  so,  but 
he  conferred  investiture  upon  all  the  nobility — spirit- 
ual as  well  as  temporal.  In  the  next  period  this  is  to 
become  the  issue  of  a  picturesque  controversy — 
Canossa. 

The  great  events  of  the  period  are: 

A.     THE    PARTITION    OF    VERDUN    (843) 

Charles  the  Great  had  united  Roman,  Teutonic  and 
Christian  elements   into  a  strong  empire,  and  during 

191 


192     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

his  life  he  was  able  to  maintain  this  union.  But  the 
moment  he  was  gone  the  forces  of  a  disunion  asserted 
themselves.  Louis,  although  not  perhaps  so  weak  as 
commonly  represented,  was  far  weaker  than  Charles 
had  been.  His  sons  quarreled  and  fought  among 
themselves.  The  result  was  the  division  of  the 
empire  at  Verdun  in  843  into  three  parts.  The  west 
became  France,  the  east  became  Germany,  the  long 
middle  strip  extending  from  the  North  Sea  to  the 
Mediterranean  became  Italy  on  the  south  and  the  Low 
Countries  on  the  north — and  the  bone  of  contention 
between  France  and  Germany. 

B.     THE    ESTABLISHMENT    OF    THE    THEORY    OF    THE 
MEDIEVAL    EMPIRE 

By  this  theory  the  church  and  state  became  two 
sides  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  This  was  a  very  impos- 
ing theory,  but  one  which  when  reduced  to  practice 
brought  no  end  of  trouble  and  confusion  in  the  succeed- 
ing centuries. 

C.  THE  CORONATION  OF  OTTO  THE  GREAT  (962) 

This  is  usually  regarded  as  the  establishment  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  but  it  was  really  a  revival  of  the 
broken  empire  of  Charles  with  France  left  out,  and 
with  a  more  sharply  defined  theory.  Men  by  nature 
are  so  wedded  to  tradition  that  they  cannot  easily 
throw  off  a  great  conception  that  has  once  ruled  the 
world.  Otto  could  not  see  that  this  step  would 
destroy  his  government  at  home — and  bring  his  suc- 
cessors into  conflict  with  the  papacy.  But  on  the 
other  hand  it  may  be  urged  with  much  show  of  reason 
that   Germany  and   Italy  still    in    co-operation   had    a 


From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory  VII.     193 

further  service  to  render  to  the  world — and  that  the 
times  were  not  yet  ripe  for  complete  separation.* 

D.     THE    ORIGIN    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OF    FEUDALISM 
LITERATURE 

Waitz:  Anfdnge  der  Vassalitdt. 

De  Coulanges:  Les  Origines  du  Regime  F^odal. 

Verschoyle :  History  of  Moderfi  Civilization^   pp.  96- 131. 

Adams:  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages^  pp.  194- 
226. 

The  empire  and  the  papacy  are  established  and 
comparatively  well-defined  institutions.  But  another 
of  the  mediaeval  institutions  to  be  far-reaching  in  its 
influence  is  feudalism.  "Feudalism  was  the  political 
and  social  system  which,  established  in  Europe  in  the 
ninth  and  eleventh  centuries,  was  developed  in  the 
twelfth,  shone  with  some  brilliancy  in  the  thirteenth 
and  declined  in  the  fourteenth.  It  was  from  this  con- 
fused society  that  modern  society  developed  itself" 
(Verschoyle,  p.  97). 

The  empire  of  Charles  the  Great  was  first  divided 
into  three  parts  (843),  then  into  seven,  then  into  nine. 
In  each  of  the  states  thus  formed  the  process  of  dis- 
memberment went  on  until  the  empire  was  pulverized, 
and  "society  became  infinitely  divided,"  and  we  have 
what  is  known  as  feudal  society.  It  is  thus  evident 
that  feudalism  tended  to  disorganization,  and  to  a 
form  of  society  in  which  the  physically  strongest  were 
brutally  supreme.  And  so  it  did  become  a  terrible 
method  of  tyranny  in  which  the  lower  ranks  of  society 
were  the  chief  sufferers.  But  taken  in  its  larger  rela- 
tions we   are   able   to   see   that   it   contributed   to  the 

*For  the  best  short  sketch  of  this  period,  see  Bryce,  H.  R.  £., 
pp.  50-121. 


194    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

growth  of  individualism;  and  that  this  individualism 
became  a  powerful  agency  in  the  contest  that  over- 
threw the  papal  monarchy;  and  that  in  the  long  run  it 
saved  the  state  from  utter  destruction. 

On  the  whole,  then,  we  can  say  that  feudalism  with 
all  its  barbarity  was  one  of  the  stages  through  which 
civilization  had  to  pass  in  making  its  weary  way 
towards  its  goal. 

E.     CHIVALRY 
LITERATURE 

Froissart:  Chronicles. 

Mills:  History  of  Chi'-o airy.    2  vols.     Old  but  valuable. 

Leon  Gautier:   Chivalry. 

The  essence  of  chivalry  is  found  in  its  standard  of 
honor  in  warfare,  and  in  the  high  regard  that  the 
Teutonic  peoples  always  manifested  towards  the  female 
sex.  It  was  closely  connected  with  feudalism,  and 
has  been  called  its  "brightest  flower." 

Chivalry  had  its  great  merits  and  its  defects. 
Through  it  the  leaven  of  Christianity  worked  itself 
into  society,  and  the  verdict  of  history  must  be  that 
chivalry  was  one  of  the  necessary  stages  through 
which  the  human  spirit  had  to  pass  on  its  way  toward 
freedom.  When  it  had  done  its  work  it  bequeathed  a 
rich  heritage  to  succeeding  ages  and  succumbed  to 
various  adverse  circumstances,  among  which  were  the 
shafts  of  ridicule  which  were  aimed  at  it  by  Cervantes 
and  a  laughing  world. 

F.     THE    TRUCE    OF    GOD 

This  was  a  period  of  extreme  lawlessness  and  vio- 
lence. The  private  wars  among  princes  and  feudal 
lords    knew   no    bounds.      The    church    attempted    to 


From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory  VII.     195 

supplement  the  weakness  of  the  law.  We  have  seen 
how  the  church  worked  indirectly  through  chivalry, 
but  it  also  worked  more  directly.  Synods  made  rules 
by  which  under  penalty  of  excommunication  the  nobles 
were  made  to  swear:  "To  strike  no  blow  in  a  private 
quarrel,  to  attack  no  unarmed  person,  to  permit  no 
robbery  or  violence."  This  was  known  as  the  Peace 
of  God — about  1026.  But  it  was  too  thoroughgoing. 
It  could  not  be  enforced.  But  in  1031  we  have  the 
Truce  of  God.     This  important  truce  provided: 

1.  That  there  should  be  a  cessation  of  all  feuds 
"during  church  festivals,  and  from  Wednesday  even- 
ing to  Monday  morning  in  every  week — leaving  only 
eighty  days  for  war." 

2.  It  marked  the  bounds  of  sanctuary  around 
churches,  convents  and  burying-grounds. 

3.  It  forbade  all  injury  to  ecclesiastics,  women  or 
peasants. 

4.  In  France  it  was  proclaimed  everywhere  but  in 
the  county  of  Paris. 

While  the  Truce  of  God  was  but  imperfectly  kept,  it 
was  a  long  step  in  advance.  It  was  an  instance,  of 
which  history  is  full,  going  to  show  that  a  half  loaf  is 
far  better  than  no  loaf  at  all. 

B.   Church  Extension 

A.      IN    THE    SCANDINAVIAN    KINGDOMS 

In  826  Harold  Klak,  king  of  Denmark,  and  his 
queen  visited  Louis  the  Pious,  and  were  baptized  at 
Mainz.  The  missionary  spirit  at  once  asserted  itself, 
and  a  search  was  made  for  some  one  who  had  the  Chris- 
tian courage  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  Jutland  and 
Sweden.  The  choice  fell  upon  a  young  monk,  Anskar 
of  Corbie,  near  Amiens   in  France.     He  said:   "When 


196    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

I  was  asked  whether  I  would  go  for  God's  name  among 
the  heathen  to  publish  the  Gospel  I  could  not  decline 
such  a  call.  Yes,  with  all  my  power  I  wish  to  go 
hence,  and  no  man  can  make  me  waver  in  this  resolu- 
tion." Lovable  in  spirit  and  in  many  ways  the  exact 
opposite  of  Boniface,  he  was  crowned  with  so  much 
success  that  an  archbishopric  was  created  at  Hamburg 
for  the  northern  missions,  and  from  this  center  he 
worked  in  all  directions.  The  work  which  Anskar  did 
advanced  through  many  reverses  until  "in  1075  ^^e 
public  services  of  Thor  and  Odin  were  all  absolutely 
interdicted  by  a  royal  order,  and  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity henceforth  was  everywhere  triumphant."  The 
conversion  of  Iceland  took  place  about  1000,  through 
the  agency  of  Stefner. 

B.     THE    CONVERSION    OF    THE    SLAVS 

The  Slavic  peoples  at  this  time  were  the  Moravians, 
the  Bohemians,  the  Wends,  the  Russians,  the  Bulga- 
rians, and  some  minor  branches.  At  the  beginning  of 
our  period  they  had  remained  in  ignorance  of  the  Gos- 
pel. The  worthy  enterprise  of  successfully  converting 
them  was  undertaken  by  two  monks  of  the  Greek 
church — Cyril  or  Constantine  and  Methodius.  As  the 
division  between  the  eastern  and  western  churches  was 
already  far  advanced  at  the  opening  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury they  got  into  trouble  with  Rome,  and  were  seri- 
ously embarrassed  in  their  labors.  But  all  the  Slavic 
peoples  were  finally  brought  into  connection  with  the 
Greek  communion. 

These  two  missionaries  began  with  the  Moravians, 
and  from  the  Moravians  the  Good  News  went  to  the 
Bohemians;  and  so  through  many  reverses  and  disap- 
pointments the  leaven  spread  through  the  whole  lump. 


From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory  VII.     197 
C.    The  Growth  of  Centralization 

A.     THE    FALSE    DECRETALS 

Long  prior  to  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  when 
the  False  Decretals  appeared,  Dionysius  Exiguus 
(500)  had  made  a  codification  of  ecclesiastical  laws. 
This  collection  contained  all  the  papal  decrees  from 
Siricius,  384,  and  "the  decrees  of  the  general  or 
oecumenical  councils,  and  the  most  important  canons 
of  the  provincial  synods"  (Fisher,  109). 

His  collection  was  followed  by  others  up  to  the  time 
of  the  appearance  of  the  False  Decretals.  They  had 
been  of  much  service  in  the  development  of  the 
hierarchy.  But  now  an  extraordinary  collection  is  to 
be  made.  Decrees  are  to  be  cited  reaching  back  to 
Clement  III.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  68.  With  such  an 
array  of  decrees  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  procla- 
mation— extending  almost  to  the  reputed  founder  of 
the  Roman  church — the  hierarchy  could  remove  all 
obstacles  in  a  believing  age.  The  causes  that  led  to 
this  collection  are  not  well  determined.  That  it  was 
made  partly  in  the  interest  of  the  hierarchy  seems 
probable.  But  the  view  that  it  was  done  to  afford  a 
means  of  escape  from  the  tyranny  of  local  tribunals  to 
a  distant  tribunal  which  could  not  give  too  much 
attention  to  details,  and  which  would  consequently  be 
less  inclined  to  interfere,  has  been  urged  with  great 
cogency. 

It  is  thought  that  this  forgery  was  sent  out  over  the 
name  of  Isidore  of  Seville  by  Autgar  of  Mainz  and 
Ebbo  of  Rheims. 

In  an  age  such  as  ours  it  would  have  been  detected 
at  once.  It  was  full  of  anachronisms  and  other  errors 
which  any  critical  scholar  would  have  seen.     But  the 


198    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

people  of  that  age  were  unsuspecting,  and  the  decrees 
were  generally  accepted  as  authoritativ^e.  They  placed 
the  pope  at  the  summit  of  a  graduated  hierarchy. 
Questions  too  difficult  to  be  settled  by  the  subordi- 
nates were  passed  up  to  him,  and  his  decision  was 
final.  Synods  and  councils  might  not  interfere  with 
his  prerogatives.  Papal  bulls  at  once  became  canons 
of  the  church.  The  pope  was  to  be  the  absolute  dic- 
tator of  the  spiritual  world. 

This  collection  also  contained  the  forged  Donation 
of  Constantine. 

B.     NICHOLAS    I.    (858-867) 

Nicholas  had  high  ideas  of  the  position  of  the 
papacy.  It  was  to  him  "the  soul  and  center  of  the 
Christian  Republic."  His  ability  was  large  and  well 
rounded,  and  his  courage  was  equal  to  his  ability  and 
to  his  conception  of  the  papacy.  He  was  quick  to  see 
how  the  Decretals  could  be  used  with  telling  effect, 
and  he  did  not  hesitate  to  use  them.  Ideas  of  central- 
ization, somewhat  vague  in  the  mind  of  Gregory,  and 
even  of  Hadrian  I.,  were  perfectly  clear  and  consistent 
in  the  mind  of  Nicholas  I.  He  may  have  had  some 
suspicion  that  the  False  Decretals  were  not  all  they 
claimed  to  be,  but  so  great  an  end  could  not  be  lost  by 
too  scrupulous  an  examination  into  the  means  for 
attaining  the  end. 

As  examples  of  his  work  we  may  note: 

1.  He  brought  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  to 
his  knees.  Hincmar  strongly  opposed  the  extremely 
centralizing  tendencies  of  his  times,  but  his  opposi- 
tion availed  nothing  before  a  powerful  pope  like 
Nicholas. 

2.  Nicholas   triumphed   over   Lothaire   II.,   king   of 


From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory  VII.     199 

Lorraine.  Lothaire  had  put  away  his  wife  for  the 
sake  of  a  concubine.  The  struggle  was  a  long  one, 
and  it  taxed  the  courage  and  the  strength  of  the  pope 
to  carry  it  to  a  successful  issue.  The  victory  was  won 
only  after  the  Emperor  Louis  had  invaded  Rome, 
broken  up  "the  true  cross"  and  killed  the  guard  of  St. 
Peter's  tomb.  But  the  result  greatly  redounded  to  the 
honor  of  the  pope. 

D.    Doctrinal  Controversies 

A.     IN    THE    WEST 

The  reign  of  Charles  the  Bold  (840-877)  was  a  time 
of  some  intellectual  and  theological  activity.  Charles 
was  not  in  general  a  strong  sovereign.  But  he  sought 
to  follow  the  lines  laid  down  by  his  grandfather. 
After  his  death  there  came  a  decline  which  ended  in 
barbarism. 

Among  the  leading  spirits  of  this  reign  were: 

John  Scottis  Erigeiia 
LITERATURE 
Alice  Gardner:  Suidies  i?i  Jolin  the  Scot — A  Philosopher 
of  the  Dark  Ages.     igoo. 

Latta:  Scotiis  Erigetia  and  His  Epoch. 

The  appearance  and  disappearance  of  this  man  has 
been  properly  described  as  meteoric.  He  came  from 
one  of  the  British  Isles,  most  probably  from  Scotland. 
He  was  learned,  brilliant,  and  by  general  agreement 
the  most  original  thinker  of  his  time.  His  most 
important  work  is  entitled  De  Divisione  NaturcE,  and 
from  this  work  it  is  possible  to  form  a  very  accurate 
estimate  of  the  man  both  as  a  scholar  and  as  a  thinker. 

With  Erigena  the  essence  of  philosophy  and  the- 
ology is  identical.      Nature  is  the   sum  total  of  exist- 


I 


200     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ence,   and  its  antithesis,  non-existence.     Nature  man- 
ifests herself  in  four  modes: 

1.  Nature  creatress  but  not  created.  God  the  source 
of  all. 

2.  Nature  creatress  but  created.  God's  eternal 
thoughts  as  manifested  through  the  Logos. 

3.  Nature  created,  not  creating.  The  ideal  and 
invisible  world. 

4.  Nature  neither  created  nor  creating.  God  as  the 
end  toward  which  all  things  are  tending  and  in  which 
all  things  are  ultimately  to  be  absorbed. 

These  four  divisions  embody  the  universe — its 
origin,  its  process,  its  end.  Erigena  was  a  Neopla- 
tonist  of  the  first  water,  and  the  inevitable  logic  of  his 
position  is  pantheism.  Strenuous  efforts  have  been 
made  to  show  that  Erigena's  position  was  not  panthe- 
istic, as  for  instance  Mr.  F.  D.  Maurice  in  his  Moral 
and  Metaphysical  Philosophy,  but  they  do  not  avail. 
The  difference  between  Plato  and  Erigena  is  explained 
by  the  two  words  "copy"  and  "identity."  Plato's 
individuals  are  copies  of  the  divine  ideas,  whereas 
Erigena's  individuals  are  identical  with  the  divine 
ideas. 

When  the  doctrines  are  applied  to  theology,  the 
Christian  doctrines  of  Sin,  Incarnation,  Redemption, 
Everlasting  Punishment  are  all  destroyed. 

Philosophically  Erigena  is  to  be  classified  as  a 
realist,  and  he  may  in  a  very  true  sense  be  regarded  as 
a  forerunner  of  scholasticism. 

But  Erigena  himself  was  truly  a  Christian,  and  in 
his  life  escaped  what  in  a  man  not  a  Christian  might 
have  been  the  consequences  of  his  doctrines. 

He  escaped  charges  for  heresy,  but  in  1209  ^^is  writ- 
ings were  condemned  at  a  synod  in  Paris. 


From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory  VII.     201 

Paschasius  Radbertus  and  the  Eucharistic  Controversies 

LITERATURE 

Trench:    Mediceval  Church  History.     Lecture  on  the 
"Eucharistic  Controversies  of  the  Middle  Ages." 
Jacob :   The  Lord's  Supper  Historically  Co?isidered. 

For  centuries  Christendom  had  been  tending  to  the 
belief  that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  literally 
present  in  the  bread  and  wine.  The  materializing 
spirit  of  the  age  was  such  as  to  accelerate  this  tend- 
ency. In  831  Paschasius  Radbertus  formulated  for  a 
pupil  what  had  become  the  belief  and  practice  of  the 
church  in  a  work  entitled  De  Cor  pore  et  Sa?igui?ie 
Domijii.  In  844  Radbertus  was  made  abbot  of  Corbey. 
He  then  reissued  the  book  and  submitted  it  to  Charles 
the  Bold.  Charles  in  his  turn  submitted  it  to  Ratram- 
nus,  a  monk  of  Corbey.  Ratramnus  made  a  severe 
criticism  on  the  work  which  appeared  under  the  title 
De  Corpore  et  Sanguhie  Domi?ii  ad  Carolum  Calvum. 
He  held  that  the  body  and  blood  are  present  only 
spiritualiter  et  Secundum  Potentiam. 

While  it  is  true  that  Paschasius  had  but  given 
expression  to  the  spirit  of  his  times,  it  is  also  true  that 
people  are  not  always  prepared  to  face  this  spirit  when 
it  is  stated  concretely.  This  "corporealizing  of  the 
faith,"  therefore,  when  clearly  stated  was  a  violent 
shock  to  all  the  scholars  of  the  age. 

It  cannot  be  truly  said  that  Radbertus  had  taught 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  His  word  is 
tra?isfer,  not  tra7isubstantiate.  And  yet  the  distance 
between  the  two  words  is  not  very  great. 

A  great  controversy  ensued  in  which  the  leading 
scholars  of  the  day  were  called  upon  to  express  their 
opinions. 


202    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  tendency  represented  by  Radbertus  was  checked 
for  a  time,  but  it  was  so  completely  in  harmony  with 
the  whole  movement  of  the  age  that  it  passed  on  into 
transubstantiation  and  finally  prevailed  throughout 
western  Christendom.  The  controversy  was  renewed 
by  Berengarius  in  the  eleventh  century.  He  opposed 
the  doctrine  of  Radbertus,  but  after  a  long  conflict  he 
yielded  and  was  compelled  by  a  synod  at  Rome  (1078) 
to  confess  as  follows:  "The  bread  and  wine  which  are 
placed  on  the  altar  are,  after  consecration,  not  only  the 
sacrament  but  also  the  very  body  and  blood  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ;  and  it  is  in  fact  sensibly  handled  by 
the  hands  of  the  priests,  broken  and  masticated  by  the 
teeth  of  the  faithful." 

Gottschalk  and  the  Free-  Will  Co?itroversy 
LITERATURE 

Robertson:  History  of  the  Christian  Church.  Vol.  Ill, 
PP-  350-369- 

We  have  seen  the  beginnings  of  the  Pelagian  con- 
troversy. The  great  questions  raised  in  that  contest 
were  never  fully  settled.  It  is  true  that  Augustine 
continued  to  be  the  standard  theologian  of  the  age. 
But  there  were  the  extremes  of  Semi-Pelagianism  on 
the  one  hand  and  Hyper-Augustinianism  on  the  other. 

In  the  ninth  century,  847-868,  Gottschalk  appeared. 
When  he  was  transferred  from  Fulda  to  the  monastery 
of  Orbais  he  became  a  profound  student  of  Augus- 
tine. The  result  was  the  rather  common  one  that  he 
went  even  beyond  his  master.  He  came  out  with  the 
idea  of  double  predestination — gemiiia  prcBdestinatio. 
One  predestination  is  to  eternal  life,  the  other  is  to 
eternal  death.  The  purpose  of  Christ's  death  was  not 
the  salvation  of  all  men.     It  was  not  God's  will  that 


From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory  VII.     203 

all  men  should  be  saved.  By  the  Fall  man's  will  was 
utterly  undone — so  far  as  any  good  act  was  con- 
cerned— but  it  was  powerful  in  evil. 

When  Gottschalk  attempted  to  propagate  his  views 
he  stirred  up  Rabanus  Maurus,  who  had  been 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Mainz.  Rabanus  exaggerated 
even  the  extreme  positions  of  Gottschalk.  He  found 
not  only  prcBciestinatio  ad  damjiatioiiem,  predestination 
to  condemnation;  but  also  prcedestmatio  ad  peccatiim, 
predestination  to  sin.  His  own  position  was  that  God 
would  condemn  only  those  whom  He  foreknew  would 
be  reprobate.     God  is  in  no  sense  the  cause  of  sin. 

This  difference  led  to  a  bitter  controversy  in  which 
the  leading  scholars  of  the  time  became  involved. 
Among  those  who  favored  Gottschalk  were  Prudentius, 
Ratramnus,  and  Lupus.  But  Gottschalk  was  con- 
demned at  Mainz  in  843,  and  at  Quiercy  in  849.  He 
was  cruelly  scourged  and  sent  to  prison,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death,  having  been  in  prison  twenty 
years. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  in  the  ninth  century 
there  was  one  exegete  who  held  that  grammar  and 
history  are  fundamental  in  interpretation.  His  name 
was  Christian  Druthmar,  c.  850,  and  he  was  known  as 
"the  Grammarian." 

B.      IN    THE    EAST 

The  church  sustains  itself  intellectually,  but  declines 
rapidly  in  earnestness  and  moral  health.  The  prin- 
cipal event  is  the  final  schism  between  the  eastern  and 
western  churches.  This  schism  took  place  in  1054. 
The  causes  of  the  divergence  were  numerous  and  dis- 
tributed over  a  long  period  of  time.  Among  these 
causes  we  should  note:  Difference  of  temperament  and 


204     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

intellectual  bias;  the  dispute  over  the  jilioque,  or  the 
procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  the  quarrel  of  Photius 
and  Nicholas  I.;  slight  and  discontinuous  intercourse 
for  a  century  and  a  half.  For  all  these  reasons  the 
east  and  the  west  gradually  grew  apart.  At  last  in 
1053  Michael  Cerularius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
peremptorily  forbade  the  celebration  of  the  Latin 
ritual  in  his  province.  He  also  attacked  the  western 
church.  This  aroused  the  papal  legates,  and  they 
excommunicated  Cerularius.  He  in  turn  anathema- 
tized them.  This  contest  so  long  in  preparing  led  to 
the  final  division  in  1054.  Antioch,  Jerusalem  and 
Alexandria  adhered  to  Constantinople  and  the  east. 

E.    Christian  Life 

The  Christian  life  of  this  period  is  mainly  a  further 
development  of  what  was  given  in  the  preceding 
period.  It  was  consequently  one  of  accelerated 
decline.  After  Nicholas  L  the  papacy  descended  to 
monstrous  depravity.  Exceptions,  however,  must  be 
made  in  the  cases  of  Gregory  V.  (996-999)  and  Syl- 
vester H.  (999-1003).  Both  of  these  popes  were  good 
men,  and  earnestly  sought  for  the  reformation  of  the 
papacy. 

But  the  depths  of  degradation  and  pollution  are  too 
bad  to  contemplate.  The  situation  has  been  described 
as  "an  Augean  stable  in  which  adultery  and  theft  were 
among  the  virtues  of  an  age  addicted  to  more  abomi- 
nable and  unnatural  crimes.  The  iniquities  of  that 
time  must  be  concealed  in  Latin;  society  to-day  would 
not  tolerate  their  translation."  A  picture  of  the  age 
has  been  left  us  by  Peter  Damiani,  the  friend  and 
co-worker  of  Hildebrand,  in  his  book  bearing  the  sug- 
gestive title  of  Gomorrhianus. 


From  Charles  the  Great  to  Gregory  VIL     205 

The  monks,  who  had  been  so  exemplary  in  the 
preceding  periods,  had  yielded  to  the  temptations  of 
wealth  and  luxury,  and  the  great  religious  orders,  had 
fallen  into  decay. 

But  in  the  midst  of  the  general  corruption  and 
degeneracy  of  the  age  there  were  many  earnest  souls 
who  remained  true  and  aggressive.  Their  efforts  led 
to  the  founding  of  the  abbey  of  Cluny.  Its  first  abbot 
was  Berno,  910.  In  this  abbey  there  was  a  revival  and 
enlargement  of  the  rule  of  Benedict  of  Nursia. 
Through  the  labors  of  Berno,  and  his  successor  Odo, 
Cluny  became  a  chief  center  and  influenced  all  west- 
ern Christendom. 


CHAPTER    IV 

FROM  GREGORY  VII.  TO  THE  BABYLONIAN 
CAPTIVITY 

(1073-1305) 

We  have  already  seen  the  gradual  growth  of  the 
hierarchy  through  several  hundred  years.  Many 
causes  have  conspired  to  make  this  growth  persistent 
and  certain.  Several  of  these  causes  have  been  men- 
tioned. We  are  now  to  see  the  papacy  reach  its  zenith 
in  Gregory  VII.  and  Innocent  III. 

A.    Church  and  State 

A.  THE  CONFLICT  OF  GREGORY  VII.  AND  HENRY  IV. 

LITERATURE 
Mathews:  Select  Me dicEval  Documents,  pp.  35-60. 
Bowman:   Gregory  VII.     2  vols. 
Stephens:  Hildebra?id  a?id  His  Times. 
Vincent:  Age  of  Hilde brand. 
Voigt:  Hildebrand. 
Villemaine:  Histoire  de  Gregoire  VII. 

All  things  are  now  prepared  for  a  mighty  struggle 
between  the  papacy  and  the  empire.  All  the  forces 
of  the  west  are  centered  in  these  two  powers.  It  is  to 
be  a  struggle  for  supremacy.  Politically  the  situation 
is  inauspicious  for  the  emperor,  Henry  IV.  He  had 
broken  his  promises  to  the  Saxons,  and  robbed  many 
nobles  of  their  lands  that  he  might  give  them  to  his 
own  favorites.  The  result  was  that  he  could  not 
depend  upon  his  people  in  an  emergency. 

206 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    207 

Religiously,  as  already  observed,  the  condition  was 
too  bad  to  be  reported  to  modern  society.  It  was  at 
this  distressing  moment  that  a  great  man  arose  from 
among  the  common  people,  found  his  way  to  the 
monastery  of  Cluny,  and  there  prepared  himself  for 
the  role  he  was  to  play  in  church  and  empire.  He 
clearly  saw  the  needs  of  the  age,  and  for  a  long  time  he 
was  the  hidden  power  of  the  papacy.  He  resolutely 
set  himself  to  the  reformation  of  society.  To  him 
there  appeared  to  be  two  principal  sources  which  had 
issued  in  the  present  state  of  the  church  and  the 
clergy.  The  first  was  the  emperor's  custom  of  confer- 
ring feudal  investiture  upon  the  clergy.  This  practice 
led  to  simony,  and  simony  was  poisoning  the  foun- 
tains of  spirituality.     The  second  was  a  married  clergy. 

Now,  Gregory  had  been  trained  in  the  Isidorean 
Decretals;  he  had  had  large  experience  in  making  and 
ruling  popes;  there  was  urgent  present  need  of  con- 
centrated force  if  anything  reformatory  were  to  be 
accomplished;  and  he  saw  that  Henry's  vacillating 
and  contradictory  policy  had  alienated  his  subjects. 
He,  moreover,  confidently  believed  that  God  had  raised 
him  up  to  be  a  moral  and  religious  reformer.  All 
these  causes  combined  to  make  him  a  very  high 
churchman.  He  was  not  the  man  to  hesitate  in  the 
face  of  obstacles.  He  determined  to  free  the  church 
from  all  semblance  of  state  control.  He  accordingly 
issued  a  decree  in  which  he  condemned  feudal  investi- 
ture. Knowing  Henry's  weakness,  as  compared  with 
King  Philip  I.  of  France,  he  sought  to  overcome  him. 
This  accomplished,  "he  would  not  only  establish 
beyond  dispute  the  principle  on  which  he  so  earnestly 
insisted,  that  the  pope,  as  viceroy  of  God,  was  above 
all    earthly   rulers — the    emperor    and    the    king   who 


208    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

claimed  the  right  to  be  crowned  emperor  not  less  than 
all  other  sovereigns." 

Henry  treated  Gregory's  decree  with  contempt;  he 
was  summoned  to  Rome  to  answer  to  various  charges. 
He  then  called  a  synod  at  Worms  and  deposed 
Gregory.  Gregory  then  excommunicated  Henry  and 
absolved  his  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegiance. 
Henry  sent  a  letter  to:  "Hildebrand,  no  longer  pope, 
but  a  false  monk."  The  letter  closed  as  follows: 
"Let  another  ascend  the  chair  of  St.  Peter  who  will 
not  cloak  violence  with  religion,  ...  for  I,  Henry, 
king  by  the  grace  of  God,  with  all  my  bishops,  say 
unto  you.  Get  down!  get  down!" 

Then  followed  the  first  excommunication,  which 
begins  as  follows: 

"Blessed  Peter,  first  of  the  Apostles,  incline,  I 
beseech  thee,  thy  pious  ears  to  us,  and  hear  me  thy 
servant  whom  thou  hast  nourished  from  infancy,  and 
even  to  this  day  hast  liberated  from  the  hand  of 
wicked  men,  who  have  hated  and  do  hate  me  for  thy 
faithfulness"  (Mathews,  p.  44-45)- 

The  course  of  events  led  on  to  the  affair  at  Canossa 
in  January,  1077.  But  the  tide  soon  turned.  Gregory 
was  humiliated  in  various  ways,  and  died  at  Salerno  in 
1085,  saying:  "I  have  loved  righteousness  and  hated 
iniquity,  therefore  I  die  in  exile." 

In  his  treatment  of  the  married  clergy  Gregory  was 
decisive  and  severe.  He  had  an  exalted  ideal  for  the 
priesthood,  and  he  could  not  be  induced  to  depart 
from  it  one  hair's-breadth.  The  clergy  must  be 
"detached  from  the  world  and  worldly  affairs." 
"This  he  considered  the  only  efficient  means  of  restor- 
ing among  the  clergy  the  moral  purity  of  life  which 
their  state  demanded."     He,  accordingly,  in  a  synod 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    209 

at  Rome,  1074,  "revived  all  the  old  decrees  against 
incontinency,  enjoining  their  observance  under  the 
severest  penalties." 

The  married  clergy  were  therefore  denounced  as 
concubinaries;  the  people  were  not  allowed  to  go  to 
them  as  confessors,  or  in  any  way  to  recognize  them  as 
religious  teachers  or  advisers. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  Gregory  met  with  the  most 
resolute  opposition  from  the  married  clergy,  but  this 
opposition  availed  little.  In  the  main  the  pope  had 
his  way. 

B.     ESTIMATE    OF   GREGORY   VII. 

The  twenty-seven  propositions  known  as  Dictatus 
Hildebrandini  were  set  forth  in  1075.*  Whether  they 
can  justly  be  ascribed  to  Gregory  or  not,  they  express 
the  policy  that  he  pursued.  Opinions  as  to  the  man 
and  his  work  have  differed  very  widely.  Germany  has 
never  admitted  his  canonization,  which  took  place  in 
1728.  To  the  Galileans  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  he 
was  Antichrist.  But  that  his  was  the  greatest  name  in 
the  annals  of  the  papacy  will  hardly  be  questioned  by 
any  one.  The  papacy  was  in  danger  of  becoming 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  empire,  and  of  falling 
into  hopeless  decay.  Gregory  saved  it,  put  new  life 
into  it,  extended,  and  established  its  prerogatives,  and 
marked  out  the  way  in  which  his  successors  should  fol- 
low until  the  papacy  should  reach  its  zenith  in  Inno- 
cent III.,  1198-1216. 

But  there  are  certain  other  results  which  are  dimly 
seen  in  this  reign,  and  which  are  later  on  to  appear  in 
the  form  of  a  new  rival  theory.  Europe  is  beginning 
to  have  aspirations  of  great  significance.     It  begins  to 

*See  Mathews,  pp.  37,  38. 


210     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

be  apparent  that  many  demur  at  the  pope's  claim  to 
excommunicate  monarchs.  To  others  it  seems  that 
the  line  should  be  drawn  at  his  claim  to  dispossess  a 
monarch  of  temporal  jurisdiction.  They  were  still 
willing  to  grant  his  supremacy  in  spiritual  matters. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  we  have  here  foreshadow- 
ings  of  the  revolution  that  was  to  come  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

C.     THE   CONCORDAT   AT   WORMS    (lI22) 

In  this  agreement  we  come  to  the  end  of  a  conflict 
that  has  divided  western  Christendom  for  fifty  years. 
The  document  furnishes  a  legal  standard  to  which 
future  differences  may  be  appealed.  It  is  not  a  com- 
plete victory  for  either  side.  It  is  rather  a  compro- 
mise in  which  the  emperor  gets  the  best  of  the  bargain. 
The  Emperor  Henry  V.  gives  up  the  right  of  investi- 
ture by  ring  and  crosier,  and  grants  to  the  church  the 
free  election  of  bishops  and  abbots.  The  pope, 
Calixtus  II.,  grants  that  prelates  shall  be  invested  with 
the  regalia  by  the  king  by  means  of  the  scepter. 

D.     INNOCENT    III.   AND    THE    CULMINATION    OF    PAPAL 
SUPREMACY 

For  almost  a  hundred  years  the  papacy  had  devel- 
oped strength  in  the  lines  laid  down  by  Gregory  VII. 
The  empire  had  not  been  able  to  hold  its  own  against 
its  formidable  antagonist.  All  things,  temporal  and 
spiritual,  were  preparing  for  the  advent  of  some  power- 
ful pope  who  should  crown  the  absolutism  which  had 
been  slowly  growing  through  the  centuries.  This  pope 
came  in  the  person  of  Innocent  III.,  1198-1216.  His 
idea  was  that  of  a  "theocracy  embracing  the  whole 
world,  in  which  the  pope  was  to  rule  as  the  vicar  of 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity     211 

God;  and  in  the  disputes  of  the  princes,  as  well  as  in 
all  other  difficult  state  causes,  to  decide  as  supreme 
judge."* 

Innocent  does  not  mince  matters,  but  he  strikes  the 
keynote  when  he  says:  "The  vicegerent  of  Christ  is 
less  than  God  and  more  than  man.  God  has  given  to 
St.  Peter  not  only  the  government  of  the  church,  but 
the  government  of  the  world.  The  church  is  the  sun, 
the  empire  is  the  moon  shining  with  borrowed  light." 

He  immediately  puts  his  theory  into  practice. 

1.  He  put  France  under  an  interdict  (1199),  because 
Philip  Augustus  put  away  his  wife.  Philip  came  to 
terms. 

2.  He  excommunicated  Otto  IV.,  and  absolved  the 
allegiance  of  his  subjects  (121 1),  because  he  showed  a 
spirit  of  independence.  This  excommunication  com- 
bined with  other  causes  led  to  Otto's  retiring  to  private 
life. 

3.  He  brought  the  haughty  and  dissolute  King  John 
of  England  to  his  knees — received  his  kingdom,  and 
conferred  it  back  on  him  as  a  fief  in  1213. 

But  in  England  there  came  a  reaction.  The  prelates 
and  barons  were  uneasy  between  such  a  pope  and  such 
a  king,  and  they  forced  Magna  Charta  from  John 
(1215).  The  pope  united  with  the  king  in  a  desperate 
effort  to  have  it  repealed.  But  the  opportune  deaths 
of  both  John  and  Innocent  left  a  united  people,  and 
Magna  Charta  remained  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
land. 

4.  Innocent  established  the  duty  of  seeking  out  and 
punishing  heretics.  He  thus  became  the  founder  of 
the  infamous  Inquisition.  This  institution  began  with 
Innocent's  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  in  southern 

♦See  Gieseler.     Vol.  II,  p.  299. 


212     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

France.  This  crusade  wound  up  with  the  utter 
destruction  of  the  Albigenses.  It  nipped  in  the  bud 
the  promise  and  potency  of  French  development;  and 
the  retarding  influence  was  felt  for  centuries  after- 
wards. This  is  seen,  for  example,  in  the  destruction 
which  it  wrought  in  the  commercial  energy  of  France. 
Verily  it  "made  a  solitude  and  called  it  peace." 

"Thus,"  says  Dr.  Fisher,  "arose  the  Inquisition, 
which  exercised  its  power  with  somewhat  varying  rules 
in  different  countries,  but  was  one  of  the  most  terrible 
engines  of  intolerance  and  tyranny  which  human 
ingenuity  has  ever  devised"  {H.  C.  C,  p.  194).* 

These  facts  go  to  show  that  Innocent  III.  during  the 
eighteen  years  of  his  reign  carried  matters  both  of 
state  and  of  church  with  a  high  hand.  But  the  papacy 
has  now  reached  its  culmination.  Henceforth  it  is  to 
experience  decline  and  humiliation. 

E.     THE  APPEARANCE  OF  A  RIVAL  THEORY 
LITERATURE 

Freeman:  Historical  Essays.  First  series,  three  essays, 
"The  Holy  Roman  Empire";  "Frederick  the  First, 
King  of  Italy";  "The  Emperor  Frederick  the  Second." 

Sullivan:  "Marsiglio  of  Padua  and  William  of 
Ockam."  American  Historical  Review.  Vol.  II,  Nos. 
3  and  4.  These  articles  minimize  Dante's  De  Mon- 
archia. 

It  is  always  true  in  the  great  movements  of  society 
which  seem  to  be  tending  in  one  direction  that  reac- 
tionary forces  begin  to  assert  themselves.  Often  they 
are  feeble  at  first,  but  they  are  none  the  less  signifi- 
cant.    Indications  of  the  rising  spirit  of  independence 

♦See  Lea:    History  of  the  Inquisition.     3  vols. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity     213 

have  been  observed  in  connection  with  Gregory  VII. 
In  the  twelfth  century  the  study  of  Roman  law  was 
revived.  This  proved  to  be  a  connecting  link  which 
joined  the  Hohenstaufen  to  the  Csesars.  Frederick 
Barbarossa  selected  four  doctors  of  the  University  of 
Bologna  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws  which  should  define 
his  rights  and  the  rights  of  the  princes  who  were  under 
him.  This  work  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  imperial  rights  that  had  fallen  into  disuse.  As 
a  result  the  emperor's  treasury  was  filled,  and  a  new 
spirit  of  independence  was  begotten.  Frederick  was 
thus  led  to  an  extreme  assumption  of  prerogative,  and 
he  was  sustained  by  the  jurists  who  ascribed  to  him 
universal  sovereignty. 

The  movement  thus  started  could  not  stop.  When 
Otto  IV.  was  emperor  he  made  many  concessions  to 
the  Pope  Innocent  III.  But  the  jurists  of  Bologna 
proved  to  him  that  some  of  these  concessions  were 
illegal,  and  so  were  not  binding.  He  was  thus  led  to 
take  possession  of  Tuscany,  which  he  had  promised  to 
leave  to  the  pope.  This  spirit  of  freedom,  as  we  have 
seen,  led  to  his  excommunication  and  retirement  to 
private  life.  The  same  spirit  was,  however,  to  appear 
again  and  assert  itself  with  greater  power  in  Frederick 
II.,  1212-1250.  Frederick  was  in  many  respects  a  ^^(^ 
great  man,  but  full  of  contradictions.  Liberal  as  a 
man  of  culture,  he  was  despotic  as  a  ruler.  His 
despotic  nature  showed  itself  especially  when  his 
prerogatives  were  called  in  question.  He  was  wise 
and  just,  where  his  sway  was  not  disputed.  His  strug- 
gle with  the  popes  began  early  and  continued  through- 
out his  reign.  The  wideness  of  his  learning  and 
sympathies  caused  him  to  be  branded  as  a  heretic,  and 
as  having  sympathies  with   Mohammedanism.     As   a 


214    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

statesman  he  was  more  moderate  than  his  grandfather, 
Frederick  Barbarossa.  He  represented  the  theory  of 
co-ordinate  power.  He  fully  recognized  the  spiritual 
authority  of  the  pope,  but  he  denied  his  universal 
temporal  authority.  He  asserted  the  co-equal  sover- 
eignty of  church  and  state. 

The  theory  of  the  mediaeval  empire  rested,  it  has 
been  said,  upon  a  double  basis.  From  the  coronation 
of  Otto  in  962  the  German  kings  were  held  to  possess 
all  the  prerogatives  of  Constantine  and  Justinian. 
This  was  the  historical  basis.  Moreover,  the  realistic 
philosophy  of  the  age  required  that  the  universal  state 
should  be  a  monarchy,  and  the  universal  sovereign 
should  be  an  emperor.  The  relation  of  this  imperial 
sovereignty  to  the  papacy,  it  was  said,  was  analogous 
to  the  relation  of  body  and  soul.  As  the  pope  was 
God's  vicar  in  spiritual,  so  the  emperor  was  God's 
vicar  in  temporal,  matters.  Differing  in  sphere,  in 
rank  they  were  equal — each  receiving  his  authority 
direct  from  God.  Thus  church  and  state  were  equally 
divine.  The  Sachsen  Spiegel  appeared  in  the  latter 
part  of  Frederick  H.'s  reign.  It  says:  "The  empire 
is  held  from  God  alone — not  from  the  pope.  Emperor 
and  pope  are  supreme — each  in  what  has  been 
entrusted  to  him."  This  has  "been  called  the  meta- 
physical basis  of  the  empire.  The  modified  theory  of 
the  empire  as  thus  expressed  found  its  most  conspicuous 
representative  in  Dante,  born  1265.  The  closing  sen- 
tence of  Dante's  £)e  Monarcliia  is  as  follows:  "Let 
Caesar,  therefore,  show  towards  Peter  the  reverence 
wherewith  a  first-born  honors  his  father,  that,  being 
illumined  by  the  light  of  his  paternal  favor,  he  may 
the  more  excellently  shine  forth  upon  the  whole  world, 
to  the  rule  of  which  he  has  been  appointed  by  Him 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    215 

alone  who  is  of  all  things,  both  spiritual  and  temporal, 
the  King  and  the  Governor." 

There  were  other  expressions  equally  clear  made  by 
the  thinking  men  of  this  age.  The  greatest  of  these 
is  the  Defensor  Pads  of  Marsilius  of  Padua. 

Marsilius  says:  "The  pope  is  the  originator  of  the 
troubles,  discords,  and  wars  which  a  pacific  emperor 
wishes  to  check.  Society  is  divided  into  two  classes. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  priestly  class  to  teach  and  dis- 
cipline men  in  things  which,  according  to  the  Gospel, 
ought  to  be  believed,  done  or  omitted,  to  obtain 
eternal  salvation.  ...  So  far  as  a  priest  possesses 
worldly  goods  or  engages  in  worldly  matters,  he  is 
under  the  same  laws  as  the  rest  of  the  community. 
And  so  he  continues." 

These  are  remarkable  statements  to  come  from  a 
man  who  was  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Paris  in 
the  first  quarter  of  the  fourteenth   century. 

F.     THE  CONTEST  OF  PHILIP  THE  FAIR    AND  BONIFACE  VIII. 

This  is  an  epoch  of  much  strength  in  French  history. 
Philip  the  Fair  is  able,  ambitious,  persistent,  and 
unscrupulous.  He  carries  far  ahead  the  unification 
and  consolidation  of  France,  and  he  is  prepared  to 
resist  any  encroachments  on  his  royal  prerogatives. 
The  same  spirit  of  independence  v/hich  we  have  seen 
among  the  Hohenstaufen  manifests  itself  in  France. 

Boniface  VIII.  was  fiery,  and  had  high  ideas  of 
papal  prerogative.  Inspired  by  the  large  conceptions 
and  the  wonderful  deeds  of  Gregory  VII.  and  Innocent 
III.,  he  determined  to  go  still  further — even  to  the 
extent  of  absorbing  the  empire  into  the  church.  But 
he  had  the  ability  of  neither  of  his  distinguished 
predecessors.      He  was  totally  blind  to  the  new  and 


/- 


216     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

rapidly  growing  spirit  of  independence  that  should 
have  been  evident  on  all  sides.  Fate  had  been  unkind 
to  Boniface  in  placing  him  the  wrong  man  in  the 
wrong  place.  The  moment  he  attempted  to  carry  out 
his  policy  "he  stood  at  the  edge  of  a  gulf  which  had 
been  gradually  widening  between  the  aims  of  the 
papacy  and  the  aspirations  of  Europe." 

The  contest  with  Philip  the  Fair  began  in  1296.  It 
was  renewed  in  1301  over  the  case  of  a  papal  legate 
who  had  defied  the  king's  authority.  He  issued  the 
bull  Ausculta  Fill.  The  king  was  sustained  by  the 
legists  who  by  the  Roman  law  regarded  him  as  abso- 
lute. 

In  the  contest  that  ensued  the  mediaeval  papacy  was 
destroyed.  The  suddenness  and  abruptness  of  the 
calamity  which  befell  Boniface  impresses  this  indelibly 
upon  the  minds  of  men.  "The  papacy  had  first  shown 
its  power  by  a  great  dramatic  act;  its  decline  was 
manifested  in  the  same  way.  The  drama  of  Anagni 
is  to  be  set  over  against  the  drama  of  Canossa."* 

B.  Church    Extension 

This  was  a  period  of  much  missionary  activity  and 
heroism  in  the  face  of  the  greatest  discouragements. 

The  Gospel  was  preached  among  the  Slavonians  by 
Otho,  Bishop  of  Bamberg,  who  died  in  1139;  by 
Vicelin,  who  died  in  1154.  It  was  also  disseminated 
among  the  northern  tribes  by  Meinhard,  who  died  in 
1 194,  and  his  successors  Berthold  and  Albert.  The 
Prussians,  who  were  a  mixed  people,  were  first  suc- 
cessfully won  by  Christian,  who  went  from  a  Pom- 
eranian convent.  Too  often  in  the  conversion  of 
these  regions  in  northern  Europe  we  read  of  "military 

*See  Creighton  :  Hist,  of  Papacy  During  Ref.    Vol.  I,  p.  28. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    217 

conversions"    in  which   the    sword    of   steel    had   dis- 
placed the  sword  of  the  Spirit. 

It  is  in  this  period  that  Raymond  Lull  (1236-1315) 
arose,  and  recognizing  the  failure  of  the  Crusaders  and 
their  carnal  methods,  sought  to  win  the  Saracens  by 
reason  and  moral  suasion.  His  fundamental  proposi- 
tion as  set  forth  in  his  Ars  Magna  is  that:  Faith  and 
knowledge  are  inseparable. 

C.    The  Crusades  (1095-1270) 
LITERATURE 

Kugler:   Geschichte  der  Kreutzziige. 

Prutz :  Ktiltiir geschichte  der  Kreutzziige, 

Cox:  The  Crusades. 

Gray:  The  Children  s  Crusade. 

Michaud:  History  of  the  Crusades.  3  vols.  Still  valu- 
able. 

The  Crusades  were  the  outgrowth  of  pre-existing 
conditions.  They  may  be  regarded  as  an  expression 
of  the  dominant  and  universal  spirit  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Looked  at  more  narrowly,  they  seem  to  be  a 
number  of  fanatical  expeditions  carried  on  by  the  fol- 
lowers of  the  Cross  against  the  followers  of  the 
Crescent. 

The  causes  of  the  Crusades  are: 

A.     POLITICAL 

The  amicable  relations  which  up  to  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century  had  existed  between  Christians  and 
Mohammedans  had  been  broken  by  the  inroads  of  a 
new  and  mixed  race  that  had  come  from  the  Steppes 
of  Turkestan.  To  them  the  Koran  became  a  book  of 
war.  They  became  masters  of  Asia  Minor,  and  were 
encroaching  upon  the  Greek  empire. 


218     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

B      SOCIAL 

The  pent-up  energies  of  a  restless  and  warlike 
nobility  sought  a  wider  and  more  distant  field  in  which 
to  express  themselves. 

C.     RELIGIOUS 

But  the  chief  cause  was  religious.  It  has  been  truly 
said,  ''The  Crusades  were  chiefly  the  explosion  of 
a  religious  sentiment."  This  accounts  in  large 
measure  for  the  general  response  that  the  nations 
made  to  the  call. 

The  results  of  the  Crusades  were: 

A.     POLITICAL 

They  were  among  the  principal  causes  that  effected 
the  decadence  of  feudalism.  They  to  that  extent 
made  genuine  political  development  possible.  In 
other  words  they  contributed  to  the  growth  of  mon- 
archy, which  was  needed  to  counteract  the  extremely 
decentralizing  tendencies  of  feudalism.  The  Crusades 
also  contributed  to  the  development  of  public  spirit. 
Men  began  to  see  that  the  permanence  and  prosperity 
of  local  ideas  and  institutions  depended  upon  larger 
and  more  general  ideas  and  institutions.  The  Cru- 
sades, moreover,  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  the  national 
spirit.  Community  of  language  brought  the  members 
of  each  nation  together,  and  made  them  see  that  they 
had  common  interests,  and  thus  the  consciousness  of 
national  individuality  came  into  being. 

The  Crusades  contributed  again  to  the  growth  of 
liberty  in  the  mediaeval  towns.  They  impoverished 
many  of  the  great  nobles  who  participated  in  them. 
In  this  weakened  condition  of  the  nobility  the  rising 
spirit   of   the    commons   was    able    to    make    its    way 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    219 

towards  enfranchisement  and  the  beginnings  of  free 
communities. 

But  the  results  of  the  Crusades  were  also: 

B.     ECONOMIC 

This  is  seen  in  the  revival  of  industry  that  came  from 
the  necessary  equipment.  "New  methods  and  new 
material  were  imported  from  other  lands.  The  east 
was  opened.  Europeans  admired  its  productions  and 
its  industry,  and  introduced  new  plants  for  cultivation 
in  their  own  country." 

They  led,  too,  to  a  great  maritime  movement  in 
which  the  thrifty  merchant  republics  of  Genoa,  Pisa 
and  Venice  were  prominent. 

Again,  the  Crusades  gave  to  the  west  a  great 

C.  INTELLECTUAL    IMPULSE 

This  came  about  through  travel,  and  through  contact 
with  the  learning  of  the  Arabs.  Thus  western  civiliza- 
tion became  reanimated. 

D.  THE  RELIGIOUS  RESULT 

of  the  Crusades  is  seen  in  the  contribution  that  they 
made  to  the  centralization  of  the  papacy.  What 
grander  spectacle  than  that  of  the  pope  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  armies  of  Christendom,  which 
are  marching  against  the  infidel!  This  conception  was 
very  influential,  especially  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
Crusades. 

Closely  connected  with  the  Crusades  were  the  Mili- 
tary Religious  Orders,  in  which  the  monk  became  also 
the  knight.  There  were  two  of  these  great  orders — the 
Knights  Templar,  founded  in  1119,  and  the  Knights  of 
St.   John,   founded    in    1120.      They  were    absolutely 


220     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

obedient  to  the  pope.     Thus  the  church  was  able  to 
use  the  sword.* 

1^  _  D.    Philosophical  and  Doctrinal  Developments 

AND  Controversies 

A.    scholasticism 

LITERATURE 

Heaureau :  De  la  Philosophie  Scholastique. 

Seeberg:  Lehrbiich.     Bk.  II,  pp.  33-197. 

Loofs:  Leitfadetiy  pp.  264-309. 

Harnack:     History  of  Dogma.     See  Index 

Kaftan:  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion.  Vol.  I, 
Chaps.  II  and  III. 

Townsend:   The  Great  Schoolmen  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Weber:  History  of  Philosophy,  pp.  198-285.  Excellent 
outline. 

When  we  reach  the  eleventh  century  we  have 
entirely  passed  over  from  the  reign  of  the  Fathers  to 
the  reign  of  the  Doctors — or  what  is  known  as  Scholas- 
ticism. 

In  the  time  of  Charles  the  Great  the  term  scholastic 
or  schoolman  was  given  to  the  teachers  in  his  schools. 
The  name  was  later  applied  to  those  doctors  who 
treated  religious  questions  from  the  philosophical 
point  of  view.  Their  various  systems  were  at  last 
taken  together  and  called  scholasticism.  The  object 
of  scholasticism  was  not  to  extend  the  field  of  philos- 
ophy and  theology.  This  field  was  already  bounded, 
and  its  cultivation  was  the  task  which  the  scholastics 
unconsciously  set  for  themselves.  When  later  think- 
ers began  to  break  through  these  boundaries  they  were 
charged  with  heresy  and  persecuted. 

♦See  Woodhouse  :   The  Military  Religious  Orders. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    221 

T/ie  Nature  of  Scholasticism 

It  is  intellectual,  aprioristic,  and  speculative.  It 
seeks  clearness  of  apprehension,  and  expression.  Its 
basis  is  theological.  The  idea  of  God  underlies  all 
knowledge,  therefore  all  other  sciences  are  subservient 
to  this  idea.  The  rule  of  scholasticism  was:  "Faith 
precedes  knowledge,  fixes  its  boundaries,  and  pre- 
scribes its  relations."     Its  method  was  syllogistic. 

The  Historical  Divisiojis  of  Scholasticism 

It  is  customary  to  divide  scholasticism  into  three 
chief  periods. 

a.  Period  One 

This  was  the  period  of  arranging  doctrines  and  defi- 
nitions. 

/.  Anselm 
The  first  man  of  universal  distinction  was  Anselm  of 
Canterbury,  1035-1109.     Anselm  was  born  at  Aosta  in 
Piedmont. 

(/)   The  Forenmners  of  Anselm 

The  questions  which  Anselm  had  to  meet  were  in 
large  measure  not  new.  The  story  of  the  origin  of 
dogma  and  of  its  conflict  with  reason  is  a  long  one. 
When  the  old  Roman  and  pagan  world  perished  it 
bequeathed  to  the  new  Christian  world  much  of  its 
spirit,  and  all  of  its  unsolved  problems  in  religion,  in 
philosophy,  and  in  politics.  The  new  world  did  not 
reject  the  inheritance.  The  discussion  of  the  relation 
of  authority  to  reason  had  waxed  warm  for  two  cen- 
turies. Erigena  had  dealt  with  it  in  the  ninth  century, 
and  Berengarius  was  thirty-five  when  Anselm  was  born. 

The  fundamental   problem,  accordingly,   was:    How 


222    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

are  reason  and  authority  related  to  one  another?  It 
is  practically  the  same  question  when  the  discussion 
relates  to  faith  and  knowledge.  -  For  by  faith  the 
mediaeval  theologians  understood:  Assent  to  the 
authoritatively  delivered  doctrines  of  the  church. 
Knowledge  is  the  truth  which,  as  resting  on  grounds, 
is  discovered  by  reason.      (Kaftan.) 

We  are  not  to  suppose  that  the  interest  in  this  sub- 
ject was  limited  to  the  learned.  The  interest  was 
widespread.  Some  of  the  leading  works  of  Anselm 
were  called  out  by  friends,  who  were  perplexed,  and 
who  wanted  their  perplexities  cleared  up.  We  thus 
see  that  Anselm  was  to  a  considerable  degree  a  product 
of  the  Zeitgeist,  or  spirit  of  the  time. 

{2)  A?isel?n' s  Doctrine 
I.  Authority  and  Reason 

His  maxim  was:  Credo  ut  hitelligam.  Man  is  created 
in  the  image  of  God,  but  this  image  is  only  in  outline, 
and  must  be  filled  out  before  one  can  arrive  at  a 
knowledge  of  oneself.  But  for  this  work  man,  a 
dependent  being,  requires  some  external  motive  to 
spur  him  on.  Such  a  motive  is  revelation  which  is 
accepted  on  faith.  Faith  precedes  science  and  gives 
birth  to  it.  This  explains  the  title  of  one  of  Anselm's 
works:  Fideiis  Qiiaereiis  hitellectum.^ 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Anselm  recognized  the 
claims  of  reason.  It  would  be  sinful,  he  said,  and  a 
grave  neglect  of  duty  not  to  reduce  the  truths  of  faith 
to  a  scientific  form.  His  method  is  illustrated  when 
he  attempts  an  ontological  proof  of  the  existence  of 
God.  The  argument  is  stated  as  follows:  The  atheist 
must  admit  that   there  is   in  his  mind  a  conception  of 

*See  Alzog.     Vol.  II,  pp.  470-1. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity     223 

a  being  infinitely  supreme.  But  it  is  impossible  for 
him  to  conceive  of  such  a  being,  without  conceiving  of 
Him  as  existing.  Therefore  this  conception  is  not 
merely  an  idea  of  the  mind,  but  an  objective  reality. 

And  it  is  further  concluded  that  whatever  there  is 
in  the  world  of  the  true,  the  beautiful  and  the  good  is 
but  a  reflection  of  Him  who  is  all  truth,  and  beauty 
and  goodness. 

This  famous  argument  of  Anselm  called  out  a  reply 
from  Gaunilo,  a  monk  of  Marmontier.  Gaunilo  said: 
If  this  argument  were  valid  it  would  equally  follow 
that  because  one  conceives  an  island  in  mid-ocean  it 
must  necessarily  be  there. 

But  Anselm  replied  by  distinguishing  between  ideas 
logically  inseparable  and  such  as  are  connected  by  an 
effort  of  the  imagination.'^ 

It  is  easy,  however,  to  see  that  the  principle  of 
authority  is  imperilled  by  Anselm's  position  that  the 
truths  of  the  faith  ought  to  be  put  in  scientific  form. 
This  is  practically  to  say  that  truth  accepted  on 
authority  can  be  demonstrated.  Now  suppose  that 
when  the  attempt  is  made  to  demonstrate  the  deepest 
truths  of  the  faith,  such  demonstration  is  found  to  be 
impossible.  Then  shall  authority  or  reason  prevail? 
At  such  times  many  fall  back  on  authority,  while 
many  others  go  forward  with  reason,  and  truth  for  the 
time  being  is  rent  in  twain.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
Anselm's  position  raised  questions  for  whose  satisfac- 
tory answer  it  had  made  no  provision.  Yet  the 
impulse  that  it  gave  to  thought  was  to  yield  benefi- 
cent results  farther  on. 

*For  a  strong  conservative  view  of  the  metaphysical  arguments 
for  the  existence  of  God  see  Orr  :  Christian  View  of  God  and  the 
World,  pp.  123-129. 


224    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

2.    The  Doctrine  of  Universals 

But  Anselm  became  involved  in  the  controversy 
concerning  universals.  This  controversy  had  its  roots 
far  back  in  the  past.  They  bore  fruit  when  Roscel- 
linus,  canon  of  Campiegne,  declared  that  universals 
are  but  the  sound  of  the  woicQ—flattcs  vocis.  The  indi- 
vidual is  the  only  existence.  When  he  applied  his 
principle  to  the  doctrine  of  God  it  landed  him  in 
tritheism.  Anselm  took  the  opposite  view  that  univer- 
sals are  real  and  the  controversy  between  nominalism 
and  realism  was  opened. 

J.    The  Doctrine  of  Sin 

Anselm's  theory  of  sin  is  found  in  his  treatises: 
On  the  Fall  of  the  Devil,  On  the  Virgi?i  Co?iceptio?t,  On 
Original  Sin.  Adam  and  Eve  were  the  whole  of 
humanity.  When  they  sinned  all  human  nature  was 
weakened  and  corrupted.  This  weakened  and  cor- 
rupted human  nature  is  "born  in  infants  with  the  obli- 
gation upon  it  to  have  original  righteousness  which  it 
always  was  able  to  preserve."  This  corrupted  nature 
is  then  a  seminal  inheritance.  Children  dying  without 
baptism  are  lost. 

But  yet  sin  is  a  matter  of  the  rational  will.  "The 
appetites  themselves  are  neither  just  nor  unjust  in 
themselves  considered,  .  .  .  but  just  or  unjust,  only  as 
he  (the  individual)  consents  to  them  with  the  will 
when  he  ought  not." 

Anselm  explains  this  apparent  contradiction  by  a 
distinction  of  nature  and  person.  When  Adam  fell  he 
did  not  include  all  individuals  but  only  all  human 
nature.  Individuals  inherit  this  nature,  but  they 
become  sinners  only  when  they  as  individuals  consent 
to  the  evil  desire.     Hence  we  have  original  sin  or  the 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    225 

sin  of  nature,  and  acttial  sin  or  the  sin  of  individual 
commission. 

Sin  is  disobedience.  It  is  man's  withholding  from 
God  what  is  His  due. 

4.    The  Doctrine  of  the  Atonejneni 
LITERATURE 

Anselm:  Ctir  Dens  Homo?  (Why  Did  God  Become 
Man?) 

Harnack:  Hist,  of  Dogma.  Vol.  VI,  pp.  54-83.  Ex- 
cellent epitome,  and  searching  criticism. 

Strong:  Systematic  Tlieology.  pp.  397-421.  Theories 
of  the  Atonement  including  the  Anselmic  theory. 
Admirable  statements  and  criticisms. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  first  four  centuries, 
the  emphasis  was  placed  rather  upon  the  person  than 
the  work  of  Christ.  Yet  the  fact  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  numerous  passages  in  the  church  fathers 
from  Clement  of  Rome  to  Augustine  show  the  presence 
of  the  thought  of  the  propitiatory  value  of  Christ's 
death.  From  the  time  of  Ignatius  the  strange  idea 
obtained  currency  that  the  death  of  Christ  was  a  ran- 
som paid  to  Satan,  who  had  a  just  right  to  the  souls  of 
the  transgressors. 

But  it  was  reserved  for  Anselm  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury first  to  work  out  according  to  the  scholastic 
method  an  elaborate  theory  of  the  atonement. 

Leading  features  of  this  theory  are:  Man  owes 
God  absolute  obedience.  This  obedience  was  with- 
held by  the  first  man,  Adam,  in  whom  was  all  human 
nature.  Consequently  God  has  been  robbed  and  dis- 
honored, and  man  is  left  in  debt  to  God.  Justice  and 
God's  honor  demand  that  this  debt  be  paid  in  full. 

Even  if  man  could  henceforth  render  perfect  obedi- 
ence the  debt  already  contracted  would  remain  to  be 


226    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

paid.  The  only  way  in  which  this  debt  can  be  paid  is 
through  punishment.  If  this  punishment  is  inflicted 
on  the  transgressors,  the  manifestation  of  God's  love 
for  man  and  his  salvation  will  be  impossible,  since  his 
punishment  must  be  eternal,  because  robbing  God  of 
His  honor  through  disobedience  is  an  infinite  demerit. 

If  man,  therefore,  is  to  be  saved  and  God  is  to  be 
satisfied  there  must  be  an  infinite  satisfaction.  For 
only  the  divine  can  satisfy  the  divine;  and  at  the  same 
time  it  must  be  human,  for  only  the  human  can  render 
satisfaction  for  the  human.  Therefore  the  God-Man 
becomes  a  necessity.  The  God-Man  owed  obedience 
for  Himself,  but  He  did  not  owe  His  own  life.  His 
obedience  and  death  were  consequently  more  than  was 
necessary  for  Himself,  and  the  surplus  might  go  to  a 
third  party — the  transgressor  for  whom  it  was  ulti- 
mately rendered  and  endured.  That  the  God-Man 
who  freely  gave  up  His  life  should  be  rewarded  was 
necessary.  But  since  He  had  all  things  how  could  He 
be  rewarded  ?  In  the  incarnation  men  had  become  His 
brethren,  and  their  release  from  the  burden  of  debt  was 
His  great  and  sufficient  reward.  "Nothing  more 
rational,  more  sweet,  more  desirable,"  says  Anselm, 
"could  the  world  hear." 

The  Anselmic  theory  of  the  atonement  soon  took  a 
leading  place  in  Christian  doctrine. 

In  Anselm  we  have  a  remarkable  combination  of 
gentleness  and  strength  of  character,  of  the  spiritual 
and  the  intellectual.  In  this  respect  he  was  a  model 
for  all  ages.  His  works  have  permanent  value,  and 
have  exerted  a  wide  influence  on  theological  thought. 
Perhaps  those  best  known  are  the  MoJiologiiun,  the 
Proslogium,  and  the  Cur  Deus  Homo  f* 

*See  Welch:  Anselm  and' His  Work. 


Gregory  VIL  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    227 

2.  Peter  Abe  lard  {^io'jg-1142) 
(/)  Reasoji  and  Authority 
Abelard  entered  with  zest  into  the  contest  of  reason 
and  authority.  He  was  too  brilliant  to  be  prudent. 
His  teachers  were  first  Roscellinus,  the  nominalist, 
and  afterwards  William  of  Champeaux,  the  realist. 
He  advanced  far  beyond  Anselm  and  was  much  more 
positive.  He  avowed  the  rights  of  reason  and 
demanded  the  argumentation  of  all  questions  on 
reasonable  grounds.  It  was  only  thus  that  the  faith 
could  be  saved  from  becoming  mythological. 

(^)  The  Doctrijie  of  Universals 
In  the  contest  about  universals  Abelard  was  unable 
to  take  either  side.  He  sought  rather  to  steer 
between.  Universals  are  not  ante  rem,  nor  post  rem, 
but  in  re.  The  universal  exists  not  in  the  individual, 
but  outside  the  individual  in  the  concept.  After  all, 
his  theory  was  very  near  to  nominalism. 

(j)   The  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement 

Abelard  denied  that  the  death  of  the  Saviour  was  a 
ransom  paid  to  Satan  in  the  following  words:  "If  a 
slave  should  desert  his  master,  his  master  could  justly 
demand  that  he  be  given  up.  But  if  a  slave  should 
seduce  his  fellow  slave  from  obedience  to  their  com- 
mon master,  how  absurd  it  would  be  for  this  slave  to 
set  up  a  claim  to  the  services  of  the  one  whom  he  had 
seduced." 

Abelard' s  own  views  on  the  atonement  were  very 
different  from  those  of  Anselm.  He  rests  all  on  the 
benevolence  of  God.  The  necessary  elements  are: 
A  fiat  on  God's  part,  and  penitence  on  the  sinner's 
part.     The  life  and  death  of  Christ  were  intended  to 


228     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

make  a  profound  moral  impression — and  so  to  produce 
sorrow  in  the  soul  of  the  transgressor.  From  this  it  is 
evident  that  Abelard  was  the  founder  of  what  we  now 
call  the  moral  influence  theory  of  the  atonement. 

His  brilliancy  brought  him  multitudes  of  students, 
and  through  these  students  his  views  obtained  a  very 
wide  currency.  One  of  his  pupils  was  Arnold  of 
Brescia,  who  taught  that  church  and  state  should  be 
separated  and  that  priestly  government  should  be 
abolished. 

But  that  Abelard's  teachings  should  go  unchal- 
lenged was  not  to  be  expected.  He  met  more  than  his 
match  in  the  mystical  Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  Ber- 
nard's doctrine  was  that,  "The  soul  might  rise  to  a 
full  knowledge  of  religious  truth  by  three  degrees  of 
consideration,  the  results  of  which  are  styled  respec- 
tively: opinion,  ia'ith,  and  tnte/lcctual  appre/ie?tsw?i."  It 
is  based  upon  the  principle  that,  "God  is  known  in 
proportion  as  He  is  loved." 

Bernard  claimed  that  Abelard  had  confounded  the 
faith  with  the  teachings  of  philosophy.  He  said: 
"There  is  nothing  in  heaven  or  on  earth  that  he  does 
not  claim  to  know." 

He  was  condemned  at  the  Council  of  Soisson,  1121, 
and  at  Sens,  1140.  After  the  last  condemnation  he 
published  a  Cojifcssion  and  Apology,  and  died  at  Cluny, 
1 142. 

Among  his  works  are:  hitroductio  ad  Theolog.  Christ; 
Sic  et  Non  ;  Scito  te  Ipstim.  * 

{4)  Reaction  against  Rationalism 
The  influence  of  Abelard  had  extended  far  and  wide. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  the   more  cautious   and   con- 
*SeeMcCabe:  Peter  Abelard. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    229 

servative  should  become  alarmed,  and  that  a  reaction, 
varying  with  different  individuals,  should  set  in.  In 
this  reaction  mysticism  is  a  controlling  element. 
Some  individuals  went  to  the  extreme  of  renouncing 
scholasticism  entirely.  Others  were  more  moderate, 
and  sought  to  avail  themselves  of  the  strength  of  both 
scholasticism  and  mysticism.  Among  these  latter  are 
to  be  mentioned: 

I.  Robert  Pulleyne 
He  sought  to  lead  the  world  back  to  the  doctrines  of 
Anselm.  Faith  must  precede  science  if  we  are  to 
know  the  truth.  His  principle  was  that  all  reasoning 
must  be  based  on  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers— that  is, 
Scripture  and  tradition. 

2.  Peter  Lombard  {1164) 

He  was  born  at  Novara  in  Lombardy,  of  poor  par- 
ents. He  was  educated  at  Bologna,  through  the  assist- 
ance of  a  wealthy  gentleman;  placed  by  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux  in  the  school  at  Rheims,  where  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Abelard.  Later  he  became  a  professor  of 
theology  at  the  University  of  Paris. 

He  composed  Four  Books  of  Sentences  in  1 140  or  11 50, 
and  was  appointed  bishop  of  Paris  in  1159.  The 
object  of  the  sentences,  as  he  himself  said,  was:  "To 
put  forward  the  strength  of  the  church's  faith;  to  dis- 
close the  hidden  treasures  of  theological  research;  to 
make  plain  the  meaning  of  the  holy  sacrament." 

It  is  thought  that  he  probably  got  the  suggestion 
from  John  of  Damascus,  whose  De  Fide  OrtJwdoxa  had 
just  been  translated  into  Latin. 

The  Se?ite7ices  became  the  first  manual  of  scholastic 
theology.  It  usurped  the  place  of  the  Scriptures  and 
held  a  high  place  for  three  centuries. 


230     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

During  this  first  period  of  scholasticism,  Plato  was 
the  philosopher  who  was  especially  esteemed,  although 
Aristotle  was  not  without  much  influence,  especially  in 
the  sphere  of  dialectics.  In  the  next  period  his  works 
are  better  understood  and  his  sway  is  absolute. 

d.  Second  Period  of  Scholasticism 

The  second  customary  division  of  scholasticism  is 
the  period  of  dialectical  skill,  method,  and  system. 
In  time  it  nearly  coincides  with  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. 

/.   Special  CJiaracteristics  of  the  Period 

The  Fathers  were  more  generally  used;  Aristotle  is 
more  correctly  understood,  and  more  extensively 
studied — his  methods  were  adopted  in  the  lecture 
rooms;  and  the  mendicant  orders  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  theological  science. 

2.    The  Great  Men  of  the  Period 

(/)  Alexander  of  Hales  ( 124^) 

He  was  educated  first  in  the  English  monastery  of 
Hales  in  Gloucestershire.  He  took  his  theology  and 
canon  law  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  after- 
wards became  a  professor.  He  annotated  the  Sentences 
of  the  Lombard;  made  the  first  commentary  on  Aris- 
totle's Metaphysics,  and  wrote  a  Sn/n  of  Universal  The- 
ology. He  was  the  first  to  make  a  complete  application 
of  Aristotle  to  the  problems  of  theology.  Alexander 
placed  affirmative  and  negative  propositions  side  by 
side,  and  sought  a  decision  from  all  sources  of  author- 
ity. But  the  ultimate  source  of  authority  was  always 
to  be  the  Holy  Scriptures.  His  authority  became  so 
great  that  he  was  known  as  the  Mojiarch  of  Theologia?is — 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    231 

the  Irrefragible  Doctor.      He  was  a  Franciscan,  having 
entered  the  Order  in  1222. 

{2)  Albertiis  Magnus  {iigj-1280) 
Albert  the  Great  was  a   Dominican.      He  took   all 
knowledge    for    his    field,    and   was    called     Universal 
Doctor.     Through   him  Aristotle  became  more   exten- 
sively known. 

On  the  problem  relating  to  Reason  and  Faith  he 
took  a  moderate  position.  To  him  theology  was  above 
all  a  practical  science.  It  is  "based  on  the  experience 
of  faith  conditioned  by  supernatural  revelation — but 
this  does  not  exclude  a  process  of  proof  for  the  sake  of 
agreement  among  believers,  and  the  conversion  of 
unbelievers."* 

In  the  doctrine  of  Universals  he  led  the  way  to  a 
compromise  "according  to  which  the  universals  ante 
res  were  to  be  conceived  as  existing  in  the  divine 
mind,  those  inrebiis  as  the  universal  element  in  indi- 
vidual things,  \\\o'=>^  post  res  as  in  our  thought.' 

(j)  Bo?mve?itura  {i 221-12'/ 4) 
Bonaventura  was  born  in  Tuscany,  was  a  Franciscan, 
the  pupil   first  of  Albertus  Magnus,  second  of  John  of 
Rochelle.      He  was  pure   in   life,    practical,   mystical, 
speculative,   a  Platonist   rather  than   an   Aristotelian. 
In    1253   he   was    a   professor    of    theology    in    Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  a  Comme?itary  on  the  Sentences  of 
the  Lombard,    the   Ce?itiloqiiinm,    and   the   Breviloqninm. 
This    last    is    regarded   as   his   most   important  work. 
Gerson   pronounced  it,  "A  rich  and  complete  exposi- 
tion of  dogmatics,  and  recommended  it  to  beginners  in 
theology  as  well  adapted  to  kindle   love  in   the  heart 
and  illumine  the  intellect." 
*See  Moeller :  Vol.  II,  p.  429. 


232    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

(4)  Thomas  Aqtii?ias  {i22'/-i2'/4) 
I.  His  Edttcaiwn 

Thomas  was  of  noble  birth.  His  grandmother, 
Francisca,  was  a  sister  of  Frederick  Barbarossa.  At 
the  age  of  five  years  his  education  was  entrusted  to 
the  Benedictines  of  Monte  Cassino.  After  six  years 
he  was  ready  to  enter  the  university.  He  went  to  the 
University  of  Naples,  which  was  at  the  time  a  flourish- 
ing seat  of  learning.  His  teacher  of  rhetoric  and  logic 
was  Peter  Martin,  while  his  teacher  of  natural  philos- 
ophy  was  Peter  the  Hibernian.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  Naples,  finishing  his  studies  in  1243, 

The  depravity  of  university  life  at  this  time  was 
shocking.  The  temptations  to  young  men  were  of  the 
most  dangerous  kind.  But  Thomas  preserved  his 
original  innocence  and  unaffected  piety.  Such  a 
nature  as  his  would  soon  sicken  at  the  wickedness, 
strife,  and  abominations  of  the  world.  He  was 
accordingly  led  to  join  the  order  of  the  Dominicans. 
In  this  he  was  strongly  opposed  by  his  mother  and 
family.  He  fled  from  home,  was  captured,  subjected 
to  temptation  by  his  brothers,  but  remained  firm  in  his 
resolution.  At  last  his  mother  came  over  to  his  side, 
and  he  was  permitted  to  follow  his  convictions. 

The  next  step  in  his  progress  was  his  course  of  study 
with  Albertus  Magnus  at  Cologne.  Here  it  is  said 
that  he  was  "grave,  taciturn,  and  modest  to  a  degree 
that  excited  the  merriment  of  his  companions,  who 
assailed  him  with  all  sorts  of  raillery,  bestowing  upon 
him,  among  other  epithets,  that  of  'the  dumb  Sicilian 
ox.'  "  But  he  soon  achieved  a  brilliant  success  in  an 
academical  disputation.  At  the  close  of  it  Albertus 
Magnus  cried  out:   "We  call  him  the  dumb  ox,  but  he 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    233 

will  yet  turn  out  a  teacher  whose  voice  will  be  heard 
through  the  whole  world." 

From  this  time  forth  his  advancement  was  steady 
and  rapid.  He  went  to  various  places,  devoted  him- 
self to  writing  and  teaching.  His  fame  became  so 
great  that  the  Universities  of  Paris,  Bologna,  and 
Naples  vied  with  each  other  to  secure  his  services. 
But  he  went  to  the  University  of  Naples  in  1272.  So 
distinguished  was  he  that  "the  king,  the  whole  city, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  country  turned 
out  to  receive  him,  and  his  entrance  resembled  more 
the  triumph  of  a  conqueror  than  the  homage  paid  to 
the  sanctity  and   learning  of  a  humble  monk"  (Alzog, 

Vol.  n,  p.  772). 

2.  The  Doctrines  of  Thojnas  Aquinas 
(/)  Faith  and  Knowledge 
The  problem  of  faith  and  knowledge  was  the  central 
problem  for  Thomas.  Anselm's  maxim  was:  Credo  ut 
Intelligam.  It  did  not  occur  to  him  that  any  limita- 
tions were  to  be  put  upon  the  proof  of  dogma. 
Abelard  advanced  much  farther  than  Anselm,  and 
then  there  was  a  reaction  toward  Anselm.  But  Thomas 
drew  a  line  between  such  dogmas  as  admit  of  proof, 
and  such  as  do  not.  "It  is,"  says  Kaftan,  "quite 
simply  put  thus:  Those  dogmas  are  rational  which  can 
be  understood  and  explained  by  means  of  the  Aristo- 
telian philosophy;  those  on  the  other  hand  of  which 
that  cannot  be  said  are  supra  rationem.'' 


{2)   The  Doctrine  of  Universals 

In  the  controversy  about    universals  Thomas   took 

the   side   of   the   realists.       Nominalism    was    tending 

toward  crude  materialism,  while  realism  was  tending 

toward  pantheism.     In  the   light   of  this   controversy 


234     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

the  question  of  the  divine  attributes  came  up.  Thomas 
as  a  realist  defined  the  attributes  of  God  and  their 
mutual  relations.  God's  will  and  His  reason  cannot  be 
separated.  Therefore,  "as  the  moral  law  is  the  true 
expression  of  the  will  of  God  it  cannot  change."* 

(j)    TAe  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement 

His  doctrine  of  God  influenced  his  doctrine  of  the 
atonement.  God  is  absolute.  He  could  directly  for- 
give sins  just  as  a  man  may  forgive  an  injury  done  to 
himself.  Yet  God  chose  the  best  mode  of  full,  objec- 
tive satisfaction  through  the  death  of  His  Son.  For 
this  choice  He  finds,  according  to  the  Aristotelian 
metaphysics,  a  relative  but  not  an  absolute  necessity. 
In  this  way  God  manifests  His  love  for  a  lost  race. 
Christ,  on  account  of  His  superabounding  love, volun- 
tarily makes  this  great  sacrifice.  Christ  as  the  head  of 
the  whole  race  renders  satisfaction  for  the  members  of 
the  body. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Aquinas  substantially  agrees 
with  Anselm. 

(^)  Political  Doctrines 

In  politics  Thomas  was  a  moderate  constitutional 
monarchist.  But  in  the  last  resort  the  church  must 
rule  the  state. 

J.    The  Writings  of  Thomas  Aquinas 

The  principal  works  of  Aquinas  are:  Coficerning  the 
Regimen  of  Pri?ices,  giving  an  "exposition  and  defense 
of  the  theory  of  Christian  government  and  political 
economy  as  understood  in  the  Middle  Ages." 

Four  books  concerning  the  Truth  of  the  Catholic  Faith 
agai?ist  the  Ge ?i tiles  ;  Tra?islatio?i  of  the  Works  of  Aristotle  ; 

See  Strong  :  Christian  Ethics,  pp.  298-301. 


Gregory  VI T.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity     235 

Commentary  on  the  Four  Books  of  Sentences  of  Peter  Lom^ 
bard;  The  Sum  of  All  Theology — Stimma  Totins  Theolo- 
giae. 

This  last  is  the  greatest  production  of  his  mind  and 
remained  unfinished.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts, 
treating  respectively  of  God,  Man,  and  the  God-Man. 
It  proceeds  by  questions.  The  question  is  stated. 
Then  the  doctrinal  errors  against  it,  then  the  answers 
to  the  errors,  then  the  full  body  of  the  article 

"The  philosophy  of  St.  Thomas,"  says  Janet,  "is  the 
faithful  image  of  his  times.  It  is  the  central  point  of 
the  Middle  Age— it  is  the  Middle  Age  itself."* 

In  Thomas  we  reach  the  culmination  of  the  scholas- 
tic theology.  He  to  this  day  remains  the  theologian 
of  Romanism. 

(5)  JoJin  Dims  Scotits  {1266-TJ08) 

The  great  activity  and  wide  influence  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  the  Dominican,  excited  the  jealousy  and 
called  forth  the  energy  of  the  Franciscans.  They  at 
last  found  a  worthy  rival  in  John  Duns  Scotus. 
Thomas  was  known  as  the  Universal  and  Angelic  Doc- 
tor, Scotus  became  known  as  the  Subtle  Doctor.  It  is 
uncertain  whether  he  was  born  in  Ireland,  Scotland, 
or  England.  He  began  his  career  at  Oxford,  was 
removed  to  Paris,  and  finally  had  charge  of  a  convent 
at  Cologne.  He  was  a  typical  Franciscan,  the  very 
incarnation  of  obedience. 

It  is  claimed  that  Scotus  was  the  equal  of  Thomas 
in  dialectical  skill,  and  his  superior  in  acuteness,  and 
that  "he  anticipated  the  inductive  method  of  Bacon 
and  Newton,  and  thus  formed  a  connecting  link 
between   the   schools   of    ancient   and   modern   philos- 

*See  Hist,  de  la  Sci.  Pol.    Vol.  I,  p.  336. 


236     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ophy."  He  doubts  whether  theology  can  ever  be  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word  a  science.  It  certainly 
must  have  principles  peculiar  to  itself,  and  it  must  be 
practical  rather  than  speculative. 

Scotus  was  a  realist  in  philosophy,  but  he  diverged 
from  Thomas  on  so  many  points  that  he  became  the 
founder  of  a  school  with  a  large  following.  We  have 
thus  the  beginning  of  the  contest  between  the  Thomists 
and  the  Scotists,  which  was  strongly  partisan,  and 
which  separated  the  two  orders  into  hostile  camps. 

Since  this  conflict  has  considerable  interest  for  our 
own  times  it  is  worthy  of  special  attention.  This  will 
be  most  satisfactorily  done  by  allowing  each  of  the 
combatants  to  speak  for  himself.  The  quotations  are 
taken  from  the  Siunma  of  Thomas,  and  the  Book  of 
Sentences  of  Scotus. 

Thomas:   "Man  was  created  in  grace." 
•  Scotus:   "Man   was    not   created    in   grace;    but   was 
placed  in  grace  after  his  creation." 

Thomas:  "By  the  Fall  the  nature  of  man  was  in  itself 
weakened  and  wounded,  so  that  an  evil  element  was 
introduced  into  it." 

Scotus:  "By  the  Fall  the  nature  of  man,  though 
deprived  of  the  supernatural  gifts,  was  not  injured  by 
the  introduction  of  any  element  of  evil." 

Thomas:  "The  incarnation  was  designed  by  God  to 
remedy  the  Fall." 

Scotus:  "The  incarnation  would  have  taken  place 
even  if  man  had  not  sinned." 

Thomas:  "The  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  had  the  taint  of 
original  sin  at  her  conception,  though  she  was  freed 
from  it  before  her  birth." 

Scotus:  "The  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  was  free  from 
original  sin  at  the  time  of  her  conception." 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    237 

Thomas:  "The  merit  of  the  death  of  Christ  was 
superabounding,  so  that  it  was  more  than  sufficient  to 
atone  for  the  sins  of  mankind." 

Scotus:  "The  merit  of  the  death  of  Christ,  being  in 
His  manhood,  was  finite;  and  the  sufficiency  of  it  lay- 
not  in  the  act  of  Christ,  but  in  the  acceptance  by 
God." 

Thomas:  "The  predestination  of  man  to  both  grace 
and  glory  is  absolutely  the  will  of  God." 

Scotus:  "The  predestination  of  man  is  a  divine  act  in 
view  of  the  foreseen  merits." 

Thomas:  "Infused  virtue  is  bestowed  by  God  on 
man,  without  his  co-operation,  though  not  without  his 
assent." 

Scotus:  "The  will  of  man  by  the  help  of  God  assists 
in  the  reception  of  virtue."* 

From  these  passages  it  is  clear  that  mediaeval 
theology  has  come  to  the  parting  of  the  ways.  While 
seeming  to  agree  in  some  particulars,  Thomas  and 
Scotus  really  disagree  in  their  conception  of  the 
nature  of  God.  This  disagreement  colors  the  strains 
of  theological  thought  that  flow  on  into  our  own  times. 

The  views  of  Scotus  come  out  in  his  doctrine  of  the 
atonement.  He  holds  to  the  absoluteness — even  the 
arbitrariness — of  the  divine  will.  What  was  the  cause 
of  the  incarnation?  Thomas,  "with  some  hesitation," 
seems  to  make  sin  the  cause  of  it.  Scotus  somewhat 
inconsistently  makes  it  "a  necessary  means  to  the 
blessedness  of  the  human  race — the  end  which  God 
has  freely  chosen  to  achieve;  hence  it  is  an  inherent 
necessity  in  things  prior  to  the  existence  or  even  the 
prevision  of  sin."f 

*See  Stone  :  Outlines  of  ChristiaJt  Dogma,  p.  336. 
fSee  Strong :  Christian  Ethics,  pp.  288-309. 


238    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  atonement  and  Its  method  are  arbitrary.  Sin  is 
not  an  infinite  demerit,  neither  was  the  death  of  Christ 
an  infinite  merit.  God  might  just  as  well  have 
accepted  some  other  substitute,  or  He  might  have  for- 
given the  transgressors  without  any  substitute  at  all. 
Why  is  a  thing  good  ?  Because  God  wills  it  to  be  so. 
There  is  no  intrinsic  quality  in  the  thing  itself  that 
makes  it  good. 

This  is  a  natural  consequence  of  making  omnipo- 
tence and  arbitrary  will  instead  of  truth  and  justice 
fundamental  in  the  nature  of  God.  "Scotus,"  says 
Kaftan,  "forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  previous 
theologians  and  the  later  nominalists.  ...  By  the 
pre-eminently  critical  cast  of  his  thought  he  undoubt- 
edly helped  to  usher  in  the  reign  of  nominalism"  {T.  C. 
R.,  Vol.  I,  p.  i68). 

c.  Third  Period  of  Scholasticism 

This  was  the  period  of  decline  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  Scholasticism  has  almost  run  its 
course.  It  is  to  become  the  object  of  ridicule  by 
Erasmus  in  his  Praise  of  Folly  in  151 1. 

The    leading  schoolman   of   this    period    is    Occam 

( 1347),  the   "Singular   and    Invincible    Doctor." 

Occam  is  a  worthy  successor  of  Duns  Scotus.  He 
revives  nominalism,  and  denies  that  the  doctrines  of 
theology  can  be  demonstrated.  But  Occam  does  not 
mean  to  be  skeptical  in  regard  to  the  truths  of  the 
faith.  They  exist,  but  they  rest  solely  upon 
authority,  and  this  authority  is  divine  revelation  as 
declared  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  He  did  not  recog- 
nize tradition  as  being  of  equal  authority  with  the 
Bible.  The  thing  that  he  emphasized  was  the  absolute 
separation   of   theology  from    philosophy.       He   still 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    239 

remains  a  good  scholastic  in  that  his  method  is  syl- 
logistic. 

Other  great  scholastics  of  this  period  were  Duran- 
dus — Doctor  Resolutissimus,  and  John  Wiclif — Doctor 
Evangelicus,  who  has  been  called  the  last  of  the 
schoolmen. 

These  men  really  broke  down  the  boundary  line  that 
had  marked  scholasticism  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
world. 

Scholasticism  had  its  weak  and  its  strong  sides.  It 
had  a  wrong  point  of  view,  and  it  was  limited  by 
authority,  and  not  by  ultimate  facts;  it  was  too  narrow 
in  its  conceptions,  since  it  was  limited  within  the 
boundaries  marked  out  by  the  Fathers  and  a  wrong 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures;  it  wasted  much 
precious  energy  in  discussing  trivial  questions  impos- 
sible to  answer;  it  finally  fettered  all  progress  and 
then  was  overthrown  in  the  revolt  of  its  subjects. 

But  scholasticism  had  also  its  strength.  Its  roots 
struck  deep  into  human  nature;  men  have  always 
wanted  things  explained  systematically  and  clearly — 
even  if  the  explanation  should  turn  out  not  to  be  final. 
The  system,  or  systems,  constitute  a  step  in  historical 
progression,  and  this  the  modern  world  is  coming  too 
tardily  to  recognize. 

Augustine  exercised  a  mighty  influence  upon  the 
scholastics,  and  they  displayed  his  strength  as  well  as 
his  weakness. 

Scholasticism  developed,  moreover,  an  intellectual 
acuteness  that  will  be  serviceable  to  the  world  for  all 
time  to  come. 

As  doctrines  gradually  became  formulated,  authority 
became  centralized  in  the  church  and  universal  in  its 
sway.     The  Middle  Age  was  pre-eminently  an  age  of 


240     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

faith  and  authority.  This  was  true  to  an  extent  that 
we  find  it  impossible  to  realize  in  our  country  where 
the  right  of  individual  opinion,  theoretically  at  least, 
is  never  questioned.  Thomas  Aquinas  set  the  stand- 
ard, laid  down  the  laws,  and  gave  the  permanent 
impress  to  mediaeval  authority. 

If  we  look  closely  at  the  conception  of  mediaeval 
authority  we  find  that  in  addition  to  being  central  in 
the  church — the  city  of  God,  practically  unlimited, 
and  universal,  it  controlled  the  overt  acts  of  men, 
secular  as  well  as  religious;  the  thoughts  of  men — the 
limits  within  which  investigation  might  take  place; 
and  the  manner  of  thought-expression  —  literary, 
artistic,  and  religious.  The  results  came  on  in  good 
time — general  stagnation,  general  suffering,  general 
unrest,  general  revolt. 

B.     THE    SECTS    OF    THE    TWELFTH    CENTURY 

Professor  Newman  has  given  an  excellent  outline  of 
the  whole  subject  of  mediaeval  sects.*  He  has  divided 
the  "Anti-Romanist  Christian  Life  of  the  Middle  Ages" 
into  Dualistic  parties;  Pantheistic  parties;  Chiliastic 
parties;  Evangelical  Separatists;  and  Church-reforming 
parties.  The  bibliographies  are  very  full  and  satisfac- 
tory. 

The  sects  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  a  subject  of  great 
difficulty.  The  difficulty  arises  chiefly  from  lack  of 
authentic  sources  of  information.  Such  sources  as  we 
have  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  accounts  given  of  these 
sects  by  their  enemies.  That  there  were  many  of 
these   sects,    and    that    their    influence   was    wide   can 

*See  Newman:  M.  C.  H.  Chapter  on  "Reactionary  and 
Reforming  Parties,"  pp.  541-621. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity     241 

hardly  be  doubted.  That  some  of  them  had  the  true 
spirit  of  Christ  and  the  primitive  church,  while  others 
propagated  dangerous  errors,  seems  to  be  equally  cer- 
tain. When  they  originated  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
They  perhaps  arose  privately  and  without  attracting 
attention  to  themselves,  and  the  contests  of  the  popes 
and  emperors  encouraged  them  to  come  forth  and 
proclaim  their  doctrines. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century  Priscillian 
appeared  teaching  Gnostic  and  Manichaean  doctrines. 
The  redemption  of  the  soul,  he  said,  could  be  accom- 
plished only  by  the  extinction  of  the  human  race. 
Hence  marriage  was  forbidden.  He,  with  some  of  his 
disciples,  was  beheaded  in  385.  This  was  the  first 
"heretical  blood"  that  was  shed  by  the  church. 

Early  in  the  same  century  appeared  Audius,  who 
believed  that  the  church  was  suffering  from  its  con- 
nection with  the  state.  He  was  excommunicated,  and 
disclaimed  all  connection  with  the  church  and  estab- 
lished a  sect. 

The  Paulicians,  originating  in  the  East  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  century,  have  been  mentioned 
in  another  connection. 

These  examples  suffice  to  show  us  that  dissatisfac- 
tion and  dissent  in  the  church  began  very  early. 

About  1 1 15  appeared  Tanchelm  in  Brabant.  He  is 
said  to  have  proclaimed  himself  the  Son  of  God,  and  to 
have  had  churches  set  up  in  his  own  honor.  The 
accounts  given  of  him  are  probably  grossly  exag- 
gerated. Many  of  his  doctrines  seem  to  have  been 
entirely  salutary. 

A  little  later  Eudo  de  Stella  taught  doctrines  similar 
to  those  of  Tanchelm,  in  Brittany  and  Gascony.  His 
denunciations   of   the   corruptions   of  the   church   had 


242    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

such    an    effect   upon    the    people   that   they   became 
riotous  and  destroyed  churches  and  monasteries. 

The  Petrobrusians 

This  sect  took  its  name  from  Peter  de  Bruis,  who 
flourished  from  about  1104  to  1125.  Not  much  is 
known  of  his  early  life.  It  is  certain  that  he  was  a 
pupil  of  Abelard.  Our  chief  source  of  information 
concerning  Peter's  doctrines  is  a  book  written  by  Peter 
the  Venerable,  abbot  of  Cluny.  The  charges  made 
against  Peter  de  Bruis  are  so  well  condensed  by  Alzog, 
the  Roman  Catholic  historian,  that  we  shall  quote 
them  at  length:  "He  rejected  infant  baptism;  denied 
the  real  presence  in  the  Eucharist;  declaimed  against 
the  mass  as  a  continuation  of  the  sacrifice  on  Calvary; 
celebrated  the  communion  service  simply  as  a  memo- 
rial rite;  held  that  no  special  sanctity  resided  in  con- 
secrated buildings,  and  that  God  might  be  honored  as 
well  in  stables  as  before  altars;  forbade  the  erection  of 
new  churches,  and  directed  that  those  already  built 
should  be  torn  down;  was  fanatically  opposed  to  the 
worship  of  the  cross,  which,  he  said,  should  be  the 
horror  of  all  Christians,  inasmuch  as  it  was  the  instru- 
ment of  Christ's  torture  and  death;  condemned  the 
practice  of  praying  for  the  dead,  and  of  giving  alms 
and  doing  other  good  works  in  their  behalf;  and, 
finally,  prohibited  all  chanting  and  the  use  of  any  kind 
of  sacred  music." 

Alzog  goes  on  to  tell  us  that  we  might  suppose  any 
one  holding  such  views  would  be  severely  ascetical. 
But,  he  says,  this  was  not  the  case  with  Peter.  "He 
encouraged  marriage,  even  in  priests,  as  a  strictly 
religious  duty,  and  wished  to  abolish  the  fasts  of  the 
church." 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    243 

He  was  finally  burned  at  St.  Giles  near  Aries,  by  a 
mob  which  threw  him  on  a  pile  of  pictures  and  images 
which  he  had  committed  to  the  flames.* 

Closely  connected  with  Peter  de  Bruis  was  Henry  of 
Lausanne — 1116-1148.  Before  becoming  a  reformer 
Henry  had  been  a  monk  at  the  abbey  of  Cluny.  He 
is  said  to  have  opposed  sacred  music  of  all  sorts;  to 
have  strongly  advocated  marriage,  and  to  have  hated 
the  clergy. 

When  he  exposed  the  indolence  and  immorality  of 
the  clergy  people  left  the  churches  and  flocked  to  hear 
him.  "He  became,"  says  Peter  the  Venerable,  "the 
inheritor  of  the  wickedness  of  Peter  de  Bruis,  whose 
doctrines  he  continued  to  preach  until  the  death  of 
that  fanatic." 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  Henry's  influence 
the  following  sentence  is  quoted  from  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux:  "I  have  found  the  churches  empty  of 
people,  people  without  priests,  priests  not  respected; 
Christians  without  Christ;  God's  holy  places  profaned; 
the  sacrament  no  longer  held  in  honor;  and  the  holy 
days  without  solemnities." 

T/ie  Waldenses 
LITERATURE 

Comba:  Storia  del  Valdesi. 

Comb  a:  Introduction  a  F  Histoire  des  Vaiidois. 

Bompiani:  A  Short  History  of  the  Italian  Waldeiises. 

Vedder :  Origvi  and  Early  Teaching  of  the  Walde?ises^ 
according  to  Roman  Catholic  writers  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury.    Am.  Jour.  Theol.     Vol.  IV,    pp.  465-489. 

Also  same  author,  Short  History  of  the  Baptists,  pp. 
65-71- 

*See  Alzog:    U.  C.  H.    Vol.  II,  pp.  655-656. 


244    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  Waldenses  were  probably  founded  by  Peter 
Waldo,  who  flourished  about  1150,  in  southern  France. 
From  this  center  they  spread  over  a  large  part  of 
Europe.  In  Italy  they  are  to-day  the  strongest 
Protestant  denomination. 

They  were  governed  by  bishops,  of  their  own  choos- 
ing, presbyters  and  deacons.  Their  members  were 
divided  into  perfect  and  imperfect.  The  first  had  "no 
property  and  observed  a  strict  fast."  The  second 
class  lived  about  as  other  people,  but  did  not  indulge 
in  gross  immorality  or  even  excessive  luxury. 

In  doctrine  they  attacked  the  external  constitution 
of  the  church  as  well  as  its  visible  organization;  they 
rejected  the  absolute  authority  of  bishops  and  popes; 
they  taught  that  laymen  and  even  women  may  preach; 
it  was  wrong  to  pay  tithes;  laymen  may  "absolve 
penitents  and  consecrate  the  Eucharist";  in  the 
veneration  of  saints  only  the  Apostles  should  be 
honored,  and  these  not  too  much;  it  was  wrong  to  use 
crosses  and  images  and  ornaments  in  churches;  the 
great  object  of  religious  worship  was  to  preach  the 
Gospel  to  the  people  in  the  vernacular;  the  Scriptures 
are  the  07te  and  o?ify  source  of  instruction  for  faith  and 
practice.* 

Tke  Bogomiles 

The  name  means  "friends  of  God."  Their  origin  is 
obscure.  They  were  first  known  in  Bulgaria.  In  nil 
the  Emperor  Alexius  Comnenus  by  deception  learned 
their  doctrines  from  Basilius,  who  was  a  physician. 
These  doctrines  were  dualistic  and  resembled  Mani- 
chaeism.  The  sect  was  persecuted  and  partially  sup- 
pressed in  1 1 19.     But  their  teachings  found  their  way 

*See  Alzog :   U.  C.  H.     Vol.  II,  pp.  660-661. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    245 

into  western  Europe,  and  especially  into  Lombardy 
and  eastern  France,  where  they  became  influential  in 
the  Albigensian  development. 

The  Albigenses 

The  conditions  in  southern  France  in  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries  were  peculiarly  adapted  to  a 
mingling  of  elements  which  could  not  chemically 
unite.  The  Roman  element  was  very  strong;  the 
Germanic  element  was  Gothic;  the  Christianity, 
although  formally  reconciled  to  Rome  was  Arian  in 
predisposition;  Manichaean  and  Paulician  ideas  had 
been  brought  in  by  refugees  from  the  east — those  ideas 
having  smouldered  until  the  general  intellectual 
quickening  of  the  twelfth  century.  Important  centers 
for  these  diverse  elements  were  Toulouse  and  Albi. 
The  latter  gave  its  name  to  the  Albigenses. 

The  clergy  had  become  thoroughly  immoral,  and 
revolting  vices  prevailed  everywhere.  The  church  was 
consequently  weakened  and  demoralized.  This  condi- 
tion invited  attack. 

Specifically,  what  did  the  Albigenses  believe?  The 
answer  is  not  easy  because  they  did  not  all  believe  the 
same  things.  They  may  probably  be  divided  into 
three  classes.  The  first  class  consisted  of  those  who 
were  like  the  later  reformers.  They  objected  to 
sacerdotalism  with  its  rigidity;  "to  the  intellectual 
narrowness  of  church  doctrine;  to  the  immoral  and 
unscriptural  lives  of  the  clergy."  The  second  class 
consisted  of  those  who  had  inadequate  or  distorted 
views  of  doctrine.  Among  these  were  found  Mani- 
chaeism,  Gnosticism,  Oriental  Mysticism. 

In  the  third  class  would  be  found  those  whose  views 
were    positively    pernicious — such    as    antinomianism 


246    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  consequent  religious  heedlessness  and  profligacy 
of  life. 

The  Albigenses  without  distinction,  as  we  have 
already  learned,  were  extinguished  in  Innocent 
III.'s  murderous  crusade. 

E.   Christian  Life 

The  Christian  life  of  this  period  is  varied  and  inter- 
esting. Customs  begun  in  earlier  periods  continued 
their  development.  New  interests  more  or  less  antag- 
onistic to  the  generally  accepted  ideas  and  beliefs 
begin  to  assert  themselves  with  a  large  degree  of  per- 
sistency and  effectiveness.  The  spirit  of  independence 
that  we  have  seen  manifesting  itself  in  other  connec- 
tions is  seen  in  the  religious  life.  Society  seems  to  be 
full  of  currents  and  counter-currents.  Inconsistencies 
and  even  flat  contradictions  become  quite  conspic- 
uous. 

A.     NEW    DEVELOPMENTS    IN    MONASTICISM 

The  monastic  orders  sought  greater  freedom  by 
breaking  loose  from  the  control  of  the  bishops,  and  by 
considering  themselves  as  obedient  only  to  the  pope. 
This  spirit  was  encouraged  by  the  papacy,  and  many 
special  privileges  were  granted  to  the  monasteries. 

As  the  old  orders  became  influential  their  vows  of 
poverty  were  broken,  they  became  rich,  and  with  riches 
came  corruption.  As  protests  against  this  corruption 
new  orders  were  founded  with  the  avowed  purpose  of 
returning  to  the  primitive  and  apostolic  faith.  Among 
these  new  orders  are  to  be  especially  mentioned  the 
Cistercians,  established  in  1098,  and  famous  because 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux  was  connected  with  it;  and  the 
Carthusians,  established  at  Chartreuse  in  1086. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    247 

The  Carthusians  were  especially  noted  for  their  rigid 
discipline  and  for  the  great  emphasis  that  they  put 
upon  spiritual  exercises. 

Among  the  lesser  orders  are  the  order  of  St. 
Anthony,  the  Trinitarians,  and  the  Premonstratensians 
— each  with  some  specific  end  in  view — as  caring  for 
the  sick,  ransoming  Christian  slaves,  and  placing 
special  emphasis  on  the  idea  of  poverty. 

The  great  number  of  new  orders  that  were  continu- 
ally arising  impressed  Innocent  III.  unfavorably.  He 
accordingly  prevailed  upon  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council,  1215,  to  forbid  the  establishment  of  any  new 
orders. 

The  Me?idicants 

It  is  now  seven  hundred  years  since  Benedict 
founded  his  famous  house  at  Monte  Cassino.  This 
great  order  became  the  model  for  all  the  principal 
monastic  institutions  of  the  west.  Its  rule  in  its 
essential  features  was  the  rule  of  them  all.  Its  cardinal 
points  were  self-abnegation,  charity,  and  other  vir- 
tues. In  order  that  these  ideals  might  be  realized  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  withdraw  from  the  world 
with  its  wickedness  and  temptations,  and  that  the 
monks  should  surround  themselves  with  conditions 
that  would  be  favorable  to  the  development  of  the 
spiritual  life.  The  influence  of  these  orders  in 
ecclesiastical  matters  was  a  controlling  one.  It  has 
been  claimed  that  they  furnished  forty  popes,  two 
hundred  cardinals,  and  about  five  thousand  archbish- 
ops and  bishops. 

But  at  the  point  which  we  have  now  reached  the 
Benedictines  are  to  experience  a  somewhat  arrested 
development.     Despite  their  vows  they  had  become 


248     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

wealthy  and  corrupt;  despite  their  theoretical  with- 
drawal from  the  world  they  had  become  worldly,  and 
their  educational  and  economic  ideas  had  touched  and 
influenced  the  world.  Thus  gradually  the  way  has 
been  prepared  for  a  new  monastic  ideal — an  ideal  that 
in  many  of  its  features  is  a  complete  reversal  of  the 
Benedictine  ideal.  This  new  spirit  of  the  age  is  to 
manifest  itself  in  the  Mendicant  Orders,  whose  ideas 
are  incarnated  in  two  great  men. 

The  first  of  these  men  was  Dominic  the  Castilian,  a 
Spanish  priest,  1170-1221.  His  conception  was  that 
the  mission  of  Christianity  was  not  to  seek  a  refuge 
from  the  world,  but  to  go  into  the  world  and  move  and 
control  it.  His  principle  is  expressed  in  the  word 
aggressio7i.  His  plan  was  to  send  forth  missionaries 
into  all  the  world  with  well-matured  purposes.  Con- 
sistently with  this  conception  he  became  the  founder 
of  the  Dominican  Order  of  Preaching  Friars — who 
became  known  as  Black  Friars.  Dominic  has  been 
called  "the  flaming  sword  of  the  church,  devoted  to 
the  persecution  and  destruction  of  heretics,  for  the 
saving  of  their  souls  and  the  relief  of  true  religion." 
He  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  appalling  crusades 
against  the  Albigenses,  and  the  Dominicans  became 
the  chief  Inquisitors  in  later  history. 

The  second  of  these  great  men  was  Francis  of  Assisi, 
I182-1226. 

LITERATURE 

Paul  Sabatier :  Collection  de  Documents  Pour  UHistoire 
Religieuse  et  Literaire.     Du  M.  A.     2  Vols. 
Paul  Sabatier:  St.  Francis  of  Assisi. 
Mrs.  Oliphant:  Life  of  St.  Francis. 
Knox-Little:  St.  Fraficis  of  Assisi. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    249 

Lea:  History  of  the  Inquisition.  Chapter  on  "Mendicant 
Orders." 

Jessop :  Coming  of  the  Friars. 

Francis  was  suddenly  converted  from  a  gay  and 
worldly  youth  to  the  gospel  of  self-abnegation  and 
absolute  obedience  to  God.  His  order  grew  up  side 
by  side  with  that  of  the  Dominicans.  The  Franciscans 
were  known  as  the  Grey  Friars  or  Brothers.  They 
went  about  doing  good,  and  the  objects  of  their  charity 
were  such  as  were  afflicted  with  the  most  loathsome 
diseases,  such  as  leprosy. 

Like  Dominic,  he  believed  it  should  be  the  purpose 
of  the  Friars  not  to  retire  from  the  world,  but  to  con- 
quer the  world.  His  followers  were  sent  out  two  by 
two  in  the  work  of  preaching  repentance.  "He  wore 
a  coarse  grey  tunic,  and  literally  followed  the  com- 
mand to  provide  neither  scrip  for  his  journey,  neither 
two  coats,  neither  shoes,  nor  yet  staves.  To  reproduce 
the  life  of  Him  who  had  not  where  to  lay  His  head  was 
the  most  ardent  wish  of  his  heart." 

Although  Innocent  HI.  sought  to  prevent  the  multi- 
plication of  new  monastic  orders,  he  was  constrained 
to  recognize  the  aspirations  of  Dominic  and  Francis, 
and  the  growth  of  the  Mendicants  or  Begging  Friars 
was  phenomenal.  Their  principle  of  aggressiveness 
caused  them  to  seek  leadership  in  all  the  principal 
activities  of  life.  This  was  especially  true  in  the 
sphere  of  education.  As  we  have  seen  in  our  discus- 
sion of  the  scholastics,  the  Mendicants  occupied  most 
of  the  positions  of  prominence  in  the  universities,  and 
were  the  leaders  in  philosophy  and  theology. 

Connected  with  these  orders  were  lay  societies  con- 
secrated to  lives  of  devotion,  but  not  bound  by  monastic 
vows.     They  were  called  Tertiaries. 


250     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

B.     NEW    INTERESTS    IN    LITERATURE 

Hitherto  the  Bible  has  been  regarded  as  the  fountain 
of  wisdom,  and  the  source  of  satisfaction  for  the  deep- 
est needs  of  mankind.  The  Lives  of  the  Saints  came 
in  to  supplement  the  Bible,  and  being  mostly  in  the 
vernacular  were  very  extensively  read.  But  now  a  new 
spirit  seems  to  be  taking  possession  of  society.  It  is 
the  same  spirit  of  independence  which  we  have  seen 
asserting  itself  in  politics  and  in  monasticism.  Liter- 
ature is  beginning  to  be  secularized.  This  manifesta- 
tion is  seen  in  the  production  of,  and  in  the  reception 
that  is  given  to,  the  pieces  of  the  Troubadours,  the 
Trouveres  and  the  Minnesingers.  It  is  seen,  too,  in 
the  new  interest  that  is  taken  in  the  pagan  writers,  and 
in  the  Civil  Law,  and  even  in  \.\\^  Four  Books  of  Sen- 
tences by  the  Lombard.  To  very  many  The  Lives  of  the 
Saints  have  become  dull  and  uninteresting,  and  the 
Bible  itself  is  being  gradually  thrust  into  the  back- 
ground. 

C.    THE    SACRAMENTAL    SYSTEM 

Sacramentalism  has  been  growing  for  many  cen- 
turies— indeed  almost  from  the  founding  of  the  church. 
In  this  period  it  attains  its  full  development.  About 
1 124  the  sacraments  took  the  definite  number  of  seven, 
which  coincided  with  the  sacred  number.  They  were: 
Baptism,  Confirmation,  Eucharist,  Penance,  Extreme 
Unction,  Orders,  Matrimony.  While  many  of  the 
more  thoughtful  insisted  that  faith  in  the  recipient 
must  accompany  the  administration  of  this  ordinance, 
the  fact  remains  that  these  sacraments  became  almost 
entirely  objective  and  even  materialistic.  Among  the 
specific  consequences  are  to  be  mentioned:  The  per- 
manent establishment  of  transubstantiation — which  was 


Gregory  VI I.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    251 

first  formulated  by  Paschasius  Radbertus,  831,  and 
afterwards  practically  established  by  the  overthrow  of 
Berengarius,  1078,  and  at  last  fixed  beyond  the  reach 
of  cavil  by  the  Lateran  Council  in  12 15. 

Another  consequence  of  the  doctrine  was  the  dis- 
continuance of  communion  in  both  kinds,  and  the 
establishment  of  communion  in  one  kind  only.  It  was 
known  as  the  doctrine  of  coiicomita7ice.  This  doc- 
trine was  originated  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  who  said 
that  the  bread,  which  was  sacramentally  the  body  of 
the  Lord,  contained  also  His  blood.  This  communion 
in  one  kind  lessened  the  danger  of  dropping  the 
sacred  elements  in  distributing  them. 

"Another  consequence  that  flowed  immediately 
from  the  scholastic  dogmas  on  the  Lord's  Supper  was 
the  adoration  of  the  Host.  It  had  been  usual  long 
before  to  elevate  the  holy  sacrament  with  the  idea  of 
teaching  by  a  symbol  the  triumphant  exaltation  of  the 
Lord.  A  different  meaning  was,  however,  naturally 
imparted  to  the  rite  when  men  believed  that  Christ  was 
truly  veiled  beneath  the  sacramental  emblems.  These 
in  turn  became  an  object  of  the  highest  worship, 
which  was  paid  to  them  not  only  in  the  celebration  of 
the  mass,  but  also  when  the  host  was  carried  in  pro- 
cession to  the  sick.  The  annual  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi  (on  the  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday)  was 
the  point  in  which  these  acts  of  worship  culminated" 
(Hardwick:  pp.  303-304). 

Numerous  other  errors  reached  maturity  during  this 
period.  Among  these  should  be  mentioned  as  espe- 
cially misleading:  The  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
which  became  almost  universal;  a  great  extension  of 
saint  worship  accompanied  by  fraud  and  larger  accu- 
mulations of  relics  which  were  mostly  spurious;    pil- 


252    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

grimages  as  an  easy  method  of  atoning  for  sins; 
absolution,  leading  to  plenary  indulgences,  first 
granted  by  Urban  II.,  in  1095,  ^"^  the  Treasury  of 
Merits — supplied  mainly  by  Christ's  sacrifice,  but  con- 
tributed to  also  by  good  men.  From  this  treasury  the 
popes  could  supply  the  shortages  of  those  who  could 
not  reach  the  standard. 

The  year  1300,  near  the  end  of  our  period,  was  set 
apart  for  a  great  jubilee.  All  Christians  who  should 
worship  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter  for  fourteen  days 
should  receive  plenary  indulgences.  The  result  was 
that  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pilgrims  poured  into 
Rome  from  all  sections  of  the  west,  and  many  were 
crushed  to  death  in  the  eager  crowds.  Another  result 
was  that  the  papal  treasury  was  enormously  enriched 
by  the  contributions  of  the  faithful.* 

This  was  also  a  period  in  which  preaching  makes 
considerable  progress.  This  is  especially  stimulated 
by  the  Mendicant  Orders  who  preached  to  the  people 
often  in  the  open  air,  in  a  popular  style.  Hymnology 
moved  from  the  natural  toward  the  artificial;  religious 
or  miracle  plays,  or  mysteries  appear;  from  the  open- 
ing of  the  eleventh  century  a  new  impulse  is  given  to 
church  architecture,  and  by  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  Gothic  style  had  reached  a  high  degree  of 
perfection. 

This  was  also  an  age  in  which  charity  was  very 
extensively  but  often  injudiciously  dispensed. 

F.    The  Church  in  England 

This  is  a  period  of  deep  and  abiding  interest  in 
English  history.     This  interest  is  both  political  and 

♦See  Lea:  History  of  Cojifessioti  aud  Indulgences,  Vol.  Ill, 
for  a  minute  and  vivid  account  of  all  these  subjects. 


Gregory  VII.  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity    253 

ecclesiastical.  It  includes  the  Norman  Conquest,  the 
wresting  of  the  Great  Charter  from  King  John,  and  the 
interaction  of  political  and  religious  forces.  The 
same  issues  that  joined  the  parties  on  the  Continent  in 
a  very  large  measure  engaged  the  attention  of  Eng- 
lishmen. The  same  decadence  that  paralyzed  the 
spiritual  life  of  Europe  also  appeared  in  England — 
and  similar  efforts  were  made  for  reformation.  It  is 
also  true  that  as  the  Continent  had  its  conflicts 
between  church  and  state,  England  passed  through 
like  experiences. 

But  while  we  find  these  parallelisms  between  Eng- 
land and  the  Continent,  and  while  English  Christian- 
ity is  organically  connected  with  Roman  Christianity, 
it  nevertheless  remains  true  that  in  England  religion, 
as  well  as  politics,  has  had  a  development  peculiarly 
its  own. 

The  Norman  Conquest  covered  the  period  from  1042 
to  1087.  The  great  churchman  of  this  period  was 
Lanfranc.  He  realized  the  needs  of  the  church  and 
set  about  reforming  its  outward  organization  and 
improving  its  spiritual  life.  This  reformation  he 
sought  through  changes  in  the  cathedral  bodies  and 
the  enforcement  of  clerical  celibacy,  1076. 

As  soon  as  William  the  Conqueror  established  him- 
self he  manifested  his  desire  for  the  continuance  of 
friendly  relations  between  himself  and  the  pope,  but 
he  also  gave  out  the  distinct  impression  that  he  would 
never  be  the  pope's  man.  Near  the  end  he  granted 
that  ecclesiastical  courts  should  be  separated  from  the 
civil  courts. 

The  period  from  1087  ^^  1176  was  a  time  of  struggle 
between  church  and  state.  The  Conquest  had  caused 
numerous  changes  to  take  place.     Among  these  were: 


254    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

A  closer  connection  with  the  papacy;  the  filling  of 
nearly  all  the  leading  positions  in  the  church  with 
foreigners — who  being  superior  to  the  English  in 
morals  and  education  made  a  reformation  in  the  clergy; 
the  growth  of  canon  law;  and  the  introduction  of 
feudal  ideas. 

In  1093  Anselm  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury by  William  Rufus,  the  Red  King.  William 
was  almost  devoid  of  conscience.  Anselm  was 
learned,  holy,  and  gentle,  but  firm  as  adamant.  In 
the  conflict  that  ensued  Anselm  was  banished.  He 
was  recalled  by  Henry  I.,  banished  again,  and  finally 
a  reconciliation  was  effected. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (1154-1189)  the  clergy 
included  many  unworthy  men.  The  king  determined 
that  when  those  men  committed  crimes  they  should 
be  tried  in  his  courts.  This  precipitated  the  quarrel 
between  Henry  and  Thomas  Becket,  which  resulted  in 
the  murder  of  Becket,  and  the  humiliation  of  the  king.* 

From  1 178  to  1297  we  have  the  struggle  for  English 
liberty,  and  its  final  establishment  by  Edward  I. 
King  John  was  humiliated  by  Innocent  HI.,  and  made 
his  vassal;  he  was  obliged  to  sign  the  Great  Charter  in 
1215.  Papal  extortion  took  the  forms  of  taxation, 
provisions,  and  annates. 

*See  Abbot*,:  5/.  Thomas  of  Catiterbury.    2  vols. 


CHAPTER  V 

FROM    THE    BABYLONIAN    CAPTIVITY    TO 
THE    POSTING   OF   LUTHER'S   THESES 

(1305-1517) 

A.    The  Relations  of  Church  and  State 

A.     THE    BABYLONIAN    CAPTIVITY    (13O9) 
LITERATURE 

Creighton :  History  of  the  Papacy  Dtirijig  the  Re  forma- 
tiofi.  6  vols.  From  this  point  onward  to  the  end  of 
the  Reformation  this  work  is  indispensable. 

In  the  contest  of  Boniface  VIII.  and  Philip  the  Fair 
the  papacy  fell  on  evil  days.  Its  steady  and  rather 
uniform  progress  from  a  single  bishopric  on  the  Tiber 
to  universal  dominion  is  suddenly  and  rudely  checked. 
And  the  check  was  not  merely  for  the  moment.  It 
was  to  be  permanent.  Never  again  shall  the  papacy 
rule  the  state.  Nay,  more,  its  right  to  rule  in  religion 
is  going  to  be  denied  and  effectively  resisted  by  the 
larger,  more  intelligent,  and  more  progressive  portion 
of  western  Christendom.  The  new  rivai  theory  that 
we,  in  a  previous  section,  saw  peeping  above  the  hori- 
zon has  arisen  and  grown  to  tremendous  proportions, 
and  it  asserts  itself  relentlessly. 

The  first  important  result  of  Philip's  decisive  vic- 
tory was  the  transfer  of  the  papal  see  from  Rome  to 
Avignon,  in  papal  territory  indeed,  but  practically 
under  the   control   of  Philip.      This   captivity  of  the 

255 


256    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

papacy   lasted    seventy    years,    hence    its    name — the 
Babylonian  Captivity. 

But  the  strained  relations  of  the  state  and  the  church 
in  France  were  duplicated  by  a  contest  of  the  pope 
John  XXII.  and  Louis  of  Bavaria,  king  of  the  Romans. 
This  contest  was  a  survival  of  the  old  and  bitter  strife 
between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.  John  sum- 
moned Louis  to  appear  before  him  as  a  suppliant  at 
Avignon.  Louis  put  forth  a  counter-manifesto,  and 
was  finally  excommunicated.  This  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  rival  parties — respectively  the  imperial  and  the 
papal  parties.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  this  conflict  that 
the  Dcfeiisor  Pads  of  Marsilius  of  Padua,  mentioned 
above,  appeared  and  created  a  profound  impression. 
In  the  long  run  the  papacy  lost  ground.  People  were 
beginning  to  have  less  respect  for  the  pope,  and  less 
fear  of  excommunication. 

B.     THE   GREAT   SCHISM    (1378) 
LITERATURE 

Salembier :  Le  Grand  Schisme  U  Occident 
Locke:   The  Great  Schism  of  the  West. 

It  seems  not  sufficient  that  enemies  should  arise  out- 
side of  itself,  the  church  is  now  to  undergo  what  is  far 
worse — division  within  its  own  body.  This  schism 
arises  from  the  attempt,  finally  successful,  to  restore  the 
papal  see  to  Rome.  A  pope,  Urban  VI.,  was  elected 
through  the  influence  of  the  Italian  party  in  1378. 
Urban  proved  unequal  to  the  stress,  and  another  pope, 
Clement  VII.  (anti-pope),  was  elected.  Clement  went 
to  Avignon.  This  double  election  led  to  what  is 
known  as  the  Great  Schism  of  the  West.  This 
schism  lasted  for  almost  forty  years.     In  the  view  of 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther  257 

the  world  it  was  a  scandal  and  humiliation.  It  con- 
tributed more  than  anything  else  that  had  happened  to 
the  loss  of  confidence  in  the  power  of  the  papacy. 
The  spirit  of  nationality  which  was  already  arising 
received  a  new  impulse.  It  began  to  be  evident  that 
states  could  exist  and  prosper  without  any  assistance 
from  the  popes.  Indeed,  it  became  clear  to  many 
leading  minds  that  papal  interference  was  positively 
harmful. 

C.     THE    REFORMING    COUNCILS 

The  Coimcil  of  Pisa  {1409)  * 
The  weakness  of  the  papacy  was  made  manifest  in 
the  Great  Schism.  It  was  now  necessary  to  maintain 
two  courts,  and  this  increased  the  financial  burdens 
already  too  heavy.  Moreover,  Christianity  was  a  relig- 
ion of  simplicity,  but  its  leaders  were  indulging  the 
extremes  of  luxury,  and  cries  for  reform  were  coming 
up  from  all  directions.  The  outcome  of  the  situation 
was  that  through  the  influence  of  the  better  class  of 
cardinals  a  council  was  called  to  meet  at  Pisa.  The 
purpose  of  this  council  was,  of  course,  to  restore  unity 
to  the  church,  and  to  purify  it  in  head  and  members. 
The  immediate  result  was  to  do  neither.  A  new  pope, 
Alexander  II.,  was  elected,  but  both  the  other  popes — 
Benedict  XIII.,  and  Gregory  XII. — refused  to  recog- 
nize the  action  of  the  council.  They  were  jealous  of 
each  other,  and  they  also  saw  that  if  a  council  could 
depose  a  pope  who  refused  to  resign  the  absolute 
monarchy  of  the  papacy  would  be  destroyed,  and  it 
would  become  a  limited  monarchy  subject  to  the  deci- 
sions of  councils.  The  result  of  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
therefore,  was  three  popes  each  with  a  considerable 
following.      Nothing  was    done    toward   reformation. 


258    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

It  remains  only  to  be  said  of  this  council  that  it  was  a 
step  in  the  right  direction.  It  is  always  a  gain  when 
an  organized  effort  is  made  to  correct  abuses. 

T/ie  Coujicil  of  Coiutance  {1414-1418) 

The  Council  of  Pisa  had  failed  either  to  heal  the 
schism  or  to  reform  the  church.  And  its  problems 
were  demanding  solution  more  urgently  than  ever. 
The  church  was  not  only  divided  and  corrupt,  but 
heresy  was  assuming  a  very  dangerous  aspect.  All 
the  indications  pointed  to  another  council — a  council 
which  should  fairly  represent  the  political  and  ecclesi- 
astical interests  of  the  west.  This  council  was  first 
called  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  and  afterwards  by 
Gregory  XII.,  at  Rome.  It  assembled  in  Constance — 
a  city  outside  of  Italy,  and  a  place  easy  of  access  for 
the  nations  north  of  the  Alps.  It  was  a  brilliant 
assembly,  consisting  of  eighteen  thousand  ecclesiastics 
alone. 

The  Council  of  Constance  dealt  first  with  the 
schism.  It  deposed  John  XXIII.;  prevailed  upon 
Gregory  XII.  to  withdraw  his  claims;  degraded  and 
deposed  Benedict  XHI. ;  and  elected  Oddo  Colonna, 
who  took  the  name  of  Martin  V.  Thus  the  schism  was 
practically  ended. 

Heresy  also  came  up  for  consideration.  John  Hus, 
who  had  been  stirring  Bohemia  to  its  depths,  was  sum- 
moned to  appear  and  give  an  account  of  himself.  He 
was  condemned  and  burned. 

The  writings  of  Wiclif  were  taken  up.  Forty-five 
articles  were  condemned,  and  the  author  was  solemnly 
declared  to  be  "the  leader  of  heresy  in  that  age."  His 
books  were  to  be  burned,  and  his  bones  resting  at 
Lutterworth   were    to  be    removed    from    consecrated 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    259 

ground,  "if  they  can  be  distinguished  from  the  bones 
of  the  faithful."  Eight  years  later  the  order  was  car- 
ried out.  Wiclif's  remains  were  burned  to  ashes  and 
the  ashes  were  thrown  into  the  river  Swift.  "The 
little  river  carried  Wiclif's  remains  into  the  Avon,  the 
Avon  into  the  Severn,  the  Severn  into  the  narrow  seas, 
and  they  to  the  main  ocean.  And  thus  the  ashes  of 
Wiclif  are  the  emblem  of  his  doctrine,  which  is  now 
dispersed  all  the  world  over." 

But  practically  nothing  was  accomplished  in  the 
way  of  reformation.  Martin  made '  promises,  but 
before  any  plans  could  be  carried  out  he  caused  the 
council  to  be  dissolved. 

The  Coiuicil  of  Basle  {14J 1-1440) 

Two  reformatory  councils  have  now  been  held,  and 
reformation,  the  subject  that  should  have  received  the 
first  and  almost  the  sole  attention,  has  been  well  nigh 
totally  neglected.  But  one  of  the  regulations  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  was  that  general  councils  should 
be  held  at  regular  intervals,  and  that  these  councils 
should  be  the  ultimate  source  of  authority  in  ecclesi- 
astical affairs.  It  also  remained  true  that,  although  the 
plans  of  the  reformers  had  been  thwarted  the  spirit  of 
reformation  was  stronger  than  ever.  This  spirit  asserted 
itself  again  in  the  events  that  led  to  the  Council  of 
Basle.  This  council  met  very  early  in  the  reign  of 
Eugenius  IV.  Its  objects  were  manifold:  "To  dis- 
seminate instruction;  to  destroy  heresy  root  and 
branch;  to  reform  the  church  in  head  and  members;  to 
establish  peace  among  Christian  nations;  to  unite  east- 
ern and  western  Christendom." 

The  long  struggles  of  this  council  resolved  them- 
selves into  a  contest  between  the  papal  and  anti-papal 


260     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

parties.  The  great  nations  were  lukewarm.  Eugenius 
was  deposed.  Then  the  tide  turned — and  apparently 
the  victory  lay  with  the  pope.  On  the  surface  it 
would  appear  that  nothing  had  been  accomplished. 
And  yet  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges  which 
contributed  much  to  the  national  independence  of 
France,  was  based  on  the  decisions  of  this  council. 

But  what  was  even  more  important  was  that,  not- 
withstanding the  disgust  and  discouragement  of  the 
reformers,  these  three  councils  brought  earnest  and 
thoughtful  Christians  almost  up  to  the  point  from 
which  they  could  see  that  reformation  within  the  con- 
stitution of  the  hierarchy  was  not  to  be  thought  of. 
Reformation  was  coming,  but  it  was  coming  through 
revolution. 

B.    Church  Extension 

By  the  opening  of  the  fourteenth  century  most  of 
the  European  peoples  had,  at  least  formally,  accepted 
Christianity.  There  were,  however,  some  outlying 
districts  which  remained  in  paganism.  These  regions 
are  now  to  be  invaded  by  missionaries.  This  work  is 
carried  on  mainly  by  the  Mendicant  Orders,  and  chiefly 
by  the  Franciscans.  We  speak  of  this  as  missionary 
work,  and  yet  the  facts  compel  us  to  regard  it  as 
hardly  more  than  a  travesty  of  missions.  Most  of 
these  men  who  went  forth  to  convert  the  heathen  were 
vitiated  at  heart  by  the  accumulated  errors  of  all  the 
preceding  centuries.  We  have  observed  that  at  the 
opening  of  the  mediaeval  era  formal  Christianity  had 
departed  very  far  from  the  pure  and  simple  precepts 
of  the  Master  and  the  apostles.  But  in  eight  hundred 
years  the  situation  has  become  far  worse. 

Among  the  peoples  who  were  reached  by  this  zeal 
for  church  extension  should  be  mentioned: 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    261 

A.     THE    LITHUANIANS    IN    1 386 

Previous  attempts  had  come  to  naught.  The  pres- 
ent attempt  was  made  by  the  Grand  Duke  Jagal.  It 
was  mainly  political  at  first,  but  afterwards  it  became 
more  evangelical. 

B.     THE    SAMAITES   AND    LAPPS 

The  results  of  efforts  among  these  people  were  not 
very  satisfactory.  "It  was  not  till  the  sixteenth  and 
the  following  centuries  that  Christianity  became  the 
popular  religion." 

C.     THE    RUMANIANS 

They  were  pagans  of  a  very  low  order.  After  a 
long  struggle  they  were  converted  and  became  subject 
to  the  eastern  church. 

D.     THE    CANARIES    AND    WESTERN    AFRICA 

The  way  was  opened  by  the  Portuguese.  Conquest 
and  the  cross  went  together,  always  to  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  cross. 

E.     AMERICA 

Of  special  and  melancholy  interest  to  us  is  the  fact 
that  America  was  discovered  during  this  period,  and 
that  the  Spanish  attempted  to  convert  the  natives  to 
their  form  of  Christianity.  The  satanic  spirit  of  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  found  its  complete  expression  in 
the  leader  of  this  "missionary"  enterprise.  It  was  in 
this  connection  that  the  slave  trade  was  started. 

F.     MOHAMMEDANS    AND   JEWS 

The  same  spirit  prevailed  in  the  attempts  that  were 
made  to  convert  the  Mohammedans  and  Jews.     The 


262    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

results    were    the    natural     consequences     of    such    a 
policy.* 

C.  Philosophical  and  Doctrinal  Controversies 
We  have  witnessed  the  almost  absolute  dominion  of 
scholasticism  over  the  western  mind.  Aristotle  was 
pre-eminently  the  philosopher  of  the  scholastics,  and  in 
their  essential  spirit  they  were  rationalistic.  Plato 
was  forced  into  the  background,  and  the  real  spiritual 
life  was  chilled  to  the  death.  Aristotle  will  continue 
to  hold  his  own  in  the  universities  for  a  long  time  to 
come,  but  Plato  will  reappear  to  remain  a  permanent 
and  potent  influence  in  the  world,  and  mysticism  will 
have  a  marvelous  and  abiding  development.  After 
scholasticism  came  humanism. 

A.     THE    rise    of    HUMANISM 
LITERATURE 

Whitcomb:  Source  Book  of  the  Italia?i  Renaissance. 

Voigt :   Wiederbelebiing  des  Classischen  Alterthums. 

Symonds:  TJie  Renaissance  i7i  Italy.  7  vols.  Abridged 
by  Pearson,     i  vol. 

Burckhardt:   The  Civilization  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy. 

Owen:  Skeptics  of  the  Italia7i  Re7iaissance. 

Spingarn:  A  History  of  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renais- 
sance.    Very  valuable. 

Brandi:  Flore?iz  iind  Rom.  A  scholarly  and  vivid 
picture  of  the  times. 

Scartazzini :  Da7ite  Ha7idbook.  Probably  the  best 
short  work. 

Robinson  &  Rolfe:  Petrarch^  the  First  Modern  Scholar 
a7Ld  Man  of  Letters. 

*For  excellent  short  account  of  the  chapter  with  references  to 
authorities,  see  Hardwick,  pp.  312-320. 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    263 

Armstrong :  Lorenzo  de  Medici. 

Villari :  Life  a?id  Times  of  Savonarola. 

Van  Dyke:  Age  of  the  Re?iasce?ice. 

By  humanism  we  are  to  understand  a  just  apprecia- 
tion of  man  and  all  his  wonderful  achievements  in 
literature,  in  art,  and  in  society;  and  of  nature  in  her 
manifold  expressions  of  beauty  and  beneficence.  The 
spirit  of  a  true  humanism  is  that  everything  that  is 
true  and  beautiful  and  good  in  the  universe  is  to  be 
appropriated  and  enjoyed  by  man  to  the  extent  of  his 
capacities. 

As  humanism  grew  the  limitations  of  scholasticism 
were  broken  through,  and  ultimately  destroyed,  and 
the  world  that  had  been  hampered  so  long  went  free. 

The  humanistic  movement  began  in  Italy  with  a 
revival  of  culture — especially  of  a  new  knowledge  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  classics — and  a  new  enthusiasm 
for  classical  antiquity. 

In  literature  this  new  awakening  is  foreshadowed  in 
Dante;  in  art  it  is  well  begun  in  Cimabue  and  Giotto. 

But  the  great  founder  and  promoter  of  Latin  human- 
ism was  Petrarch.  He  cultivated  Latin;  developed 
Italian  lyric  poetry;  made  vast  collections  of  manu- 
scripts—thus becoming  the  founder  of  libraries; 
climbed  mountains  for  the  sake  of  the  view — thus 
directing  the  attention  of  the  world  to  the  beauties  of 
nature. 

Petrarch's  love  of  nature  is  shown  in  the  following 
passage  from  his  description  of  Vaucluse:  "Where, 
outside  of  Italy,  can  you  find  a  more  tranquil  dwelling 
than  this?  From  morning  till  evening  you  may  see 
me  wandering  over  the  hills,  through  the  meadows,  the 
streams,  and  the  forests,  cultivating  the  soil,  avoiding 
contact  with  men,  following  the  birds,  resting  in  the 


264    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

shade,  enjoying  the  mossy  caves  and  green  plains, 
detesting  the  deceits  of  the  court,  avoiding  the  noise 
of  the  city,  keeping  far  from  the  thresholds  of  the 
proud,  despising  the  cares  of  the  vulgar;  neither  too 
sad  nor  too  gay,  absorbed  day  and  night  in  the  sweet- 
est peace,  with  the  company  of  the  muses,  the  songs 
of  the  birds,  the  murmur  of  the  proud  and  glorious 
waters"  {£/?.  Fam.,  VI,  3). 

He  was  energetically  seconded  by  Boccaccio,  whose 
tales  made  him  the  creator  of  Italian  prose. 

Petrarch  did  not  understand  Greek,  yet  he  longed  to 
do  so,  for  he  was  fully  convinced  of  the  treasures  that 
Greek  literature  must  contain. 

But  the  Greek  revival  was  not  long  deferred.  By 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  influence  of 
Immanuel  Chrysoloras  had  been  felt.  But  the  main 
impulse  was  given  to  the  movement  by  Gemistos 
Pletho,  whose  enthusiasm  for  the  Platonic  philosophy 
proved  contagious  in  Italy,  where  he  worked  for  a 
time.  This  revival  was  aided  still  further  by  the  influx 
of  Greek  scholars  into  the  west  after  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople in  1453. 

By  the  advice  of  Pletho  the  famous  Platonic  Acad- 
emy was  founded  in  Florence  by  Cosimo  de  Medici. 
The  purpose  of  this  academy  was  to  restore  the  more 
congenial  philosophy  of  Plato  as  opposed  to  Aristotle, 
who  had  been  the  victim  of  Arabian  misinterpreta- 
tions. The  most  gifted  head  of  the  academy  was 
Marsilio  Ficino,  the  promise  of  whose  youth  led 
Cosimo  to  give  him  a  special  training  for  this 
responsible  position. 

The  Platonic  Academy  reached  its  highest  point  of 
influence  under  Lorenzo  de  Medici  and  the  coterie  of 
brilliant  men  whom  he  gathered  around  him.     Among 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    265 

these   should   be    mentioned,    in    addition    to    Ficino, 
Poliziano,  and  Pico  della  Mirandola. 

Humanism  did  not  arise  as  a  power  antagonistic  to 
the  church,  but  rather  as  an  independent  movement. 

But  criticism  became  a  necessity  almost  at  the 
beginning.  Manuscripts  purporting  to  come  from  the 
same  author  on  the  same  subject  often  varied  to  a 
great  extent.  The  effort  to  ascertain  exactly  what  the 
author  did  say  brought  scientific  method  and  criticism 
into  being.  As  soon  as  this  method  showed  good 
results  it  became  clear  that  its  application  ought  not  to 
be  confined  to  the  writings  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
but  that  it  ought  to  be  applied  to  all  writings. 

It  is  no  surprise,  then,  when  Laurentius  Valla  writes 
Annotations  on  the  New  TestamcJit ;  applies  philological 
criticism  to  the  Vulgate;  and  subjects  the  Donation 
of  Co?istanti?ie  to  a  rigorous  historical  criticism. 
Neither  are  we  surprised  when  the  Inquisition  became 
alarmed  at  the  boldness  of  such  proceedings.  But  the 
spirit  of  humanism  had  even  captured  the  papacy,  and 
Pope  Nicholas  V.  would  allow  no  interference  with 
Valla. 

Now  this  wonderful  movement  towards  a  truer 
understanding  of  man  in  all  his  relations  could  not  be 
confined  to  Italy.  It  was  destined  to  become  a  con- 
trolling influence  in  all  European  society.  The  lead- 
ing scholars  of  the  age  were  members  of  the  Platonic 
Academy.  It  included  also  nearly  all  the  great 
patrons  of  learning  in  Europe.  Moreover,  in  the  great 
councils  of  the  church,  Germans  and  Frenchmen  and 
Englishmen  had  met  Italians,  and  thus  important 
avenues  of  communication  were  open.  A  great  idea, 
then,  in  one  part  of  the  world  would  very  soon  become 
familiar  in  all  other  parts  of  it.      Humanism  accord- 


266    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ingly  was  soon  firmly  fixed  at  Erfurt,  Heidelberg, 
Paris,  and  Oxford.  From  these  centers  it  went  every- 
where. 

It  is  to  be  noted  further  that  while  humanism  south 
of  the  Alps  was  prevailingly  intellectual,  and  often 
thoroughly  pagan,  north  of  the  Alps  it  was  tempered 
and  guided  by  a  strong  spirftual  element.  In  Italy 
criticism  was  applied  chiefly  to  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics,  but  in  the  northern  countries  it  was  reverently 
used  not  only  for  the  overthrow  of  scholasticism,  but 
also  for  the  better  understanding  of  the  Scriptures. 

But  the  spirit  of  humanism  was  also  caught  by  the 
Aristotelians,  and  instead  of  the  misinterpreted 
Aristotle  of  the  earlier  schoolmen,  a  truer  Aristotle 
arises  to  vindicate  himself.  In  this  new  peripatetic 
school  skepticism  was  developed  to  an  alarming  extent. 
The  leading  philosopher  of  this  school  was  probably 
Pietro  Pomponazzi,  who  died  in  1526.  He  did  not 
openly  attack  the  church,  but  he  doubted  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  and  divine  providence  in  the  world.* 

As  always  happens  in  such  periods  of  history,  enthu- 
siasm soon  broke  over  the  bounds  of  discretion.  The 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  were  studied  so  exclusively 
and  were  so  completely  adopted  as  the  only  true 
models  that  the  writings  of  the  time  were  soon  thor- 
oughly artificial,  and  a  true,  natural  growth  in  thought 
and  literature  was  utterly  impossible.  This  is  seen  in 
Petrarch,  who  expected  that  his  immortality  would 
rest  upon  his  Latin  writings — such  as  his  Africa — and 
not  upon  his  Italian  lyrics,  which  he  did  not  regard  very 
highly. 

*For  an  interesting  imaginary  debate  between  the  young  Pom- 
ponazzi and  his  older  antagonist  Achillini  on  the  multiplicity  or 
simplicity  of  the  intellect  see  Owen:  Sceptics,  etc.,  pp.,  189-194. 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    26? 

And  so,  under  the  influence  of  the  classics,  and  the 
skeptical  tendencies  that  came  on  apace,  and  under  the 
new  and  easy  freedom  that  humanism  brought,  Italian 
society  lapsed  into  a  low  degree  of  immorality.  But 
this  was  only  the  decline  which  precedes  a  great 
revival. 

B.     THE   ORIGIN   AND    DEVELOPMENT   OF    MYSTICISM 
LITERATURE 

Vaughan :  Hours  with  the  Mystics. 

Inge:  Christian  Mysticism.  The  Bampton  Lectures 
for  1899.  A  very  admirable  and  well  tempered  pre- 
sentation. 

TJllmanii:  Refonners  before  the  Reformation.  Vol.  II. 
Bk.  3. 

Kaftan:  Das  Wesen  der  Christlichen  Religion,  p.  71  ff. 
and  p.  362  ff.  Also,  TJie  Truth  of  the  Oiristian  Religio?i, 
pp.  8-9n.  and  pp.  6i-2n. 

Clarke,  J.  F:  Events  and  Epochs  in  Religious  History. 
Lect.  9.      "The  Mystics  in  all  Religions." 

Piper:  Lives  of  Leaders  of  Oicr  Religion.  1st,  Tauler 
of  Strasburg.     2d,  Thomas  a  Kempis. 

Trench:  Lectures  o?i  Mediceval  Church  History.  "The 
German  Mystics." 

Smith:  Students    Ecclesiastical  History.      Vol,  II,  pp. 

554-575- 
Unknown  author:  The  Germa7i  Theology. 

The  word  mysticism  in  the  popular  mind  has  many 
meanings,  most  of  which  cannot  properly  be  applied 
to  it.  Mysticism  is  subjective  rather  than  objective. 
It  is  an  inner  experience  (Innigkeit).  Its  central 
idea  is  that  of  vital  and  immediate  union  with  God. 
It  thus  comes  about  that  God   and  divine  things  are 


268     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

not  known  through  any  dialectical  process,  but  they 
are  experienced  through  the  direct  and  immediate 
intercommunion  of  the  individual  and  the  infinite 
Source  of  all  being. 

Mediaeval  mysticism  arose  in  connection  with  scho- 
lasticism. It  was  soon  differentiated  from  scholasti- 
cism, and  later  on  antagonized  it.  The  earlier 
embodiments  of  mysticism  are  found  in  William  of 
Champeaux,  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and  the  Victorines. 
These  men  represent  the  twelfth  century.  The  full 
development  of  mysticism  was  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  The  causes  that  led  to  this 
development  are  well  known,  but  they  should  be 
enumerated  here: 

1.  The  inheritance  of  Neoplatonism. 

2.  The  aridity  of  scholasticism. 

3.  The  shocking  corruption  of  the  whole  ecclesias- 
tical establishment. 

4.  The  conflict  between  Pope  John  XXII.  and  Em- 
peror Louis  IV.,  which  brought  great  sufferings  to  the 
people. 

5.  The  ravages  of  the  Black  Death,  and  the  terrify- 
ing convulsions  of  physical  nature.  Murrains  destroyed 
the  flocks,  storms  laid  waste  the  crops,  and  earthquakes 
spread  desolation  and  terror. 

It  seemed  to  be  a  time  of  universal  calamity.  Surely 
nothing  in  the  external  world  gave  any  hope.  "The 
councils,  toward  which  men  were  already  looking, 
might  or  might  not  reform  or  renew  the  outward  face 
of  the  church;  but  the  true  mystic  would  fain  reform 
and  renew  what  was  more  within  his  power,  and  what 
he  felt  more  nearly  to  concern  him,  namely,  himself 
and  his  own  heart.  If  every  external  basis  and  sup- 
port for  government  and  religion   had  given  way,  we 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    269 

have,  they  said,  at  least  ourselves  left  us.  Within  the 
circle  of  our  own  thoughts  we  have  enough  to  content 
us.  There,  if  we  seek  it,  we  can  find  order  and  peace 
and  holy  quiet,  and  God  the  author  of  these"  (see 
Trench:  pp.  358-9). 

Such  an  attitude  of  mind  and  heart  has  its  weakness 
and  its  strength,  and  both  will  appear  in  due  time. 

The  leading  mystics  were  members  of  the  Dominican 
order.  They  regarded  themselves,  for  the  most  part, 
as  faithful  members  of  the  church.  They  were  reform- 
ers, but  they  did  not  wish  to  defy  the  church,  or  to 
break  with  it.  Yet  in  several  cases  they  came  very 
near  to  doing  both. 

Like  all  great  conceptions  that  embody  neglected 
or  fundamental  truth,  mysticism  expressed  itself  in 
distinguished  men.  Through  these  men  many  varia- 
tions will  always  appear. 

The  founder  of  German  mysticism  was  Master 
EcKART,  1260-1327.  Eckart  was  born  in  Strasburg, 
became  a  pupil  of  Albertus  Magnus  at  Cologne,  took 
his  master's  degree  at  Paris,  and  filled  numerous  impor- 
tant positions  in  the  Dominican  Order.  He  was 
accused  of  heresy,  but  refuted  the  accusation  in  a  ser- 
mon. He  was  an  epoch-maker,  and  has  been  called 
"the  father  of  German  speculation." 

Eckart's  mysticism  amounted  to  pantheism.  Tak- 
ing Thomas  Aquinas  for  his  basis,  he  developed  a 
theory  of  knowledge  in  which  man  the  subject  is  so 
closely  united  to  God  the  object  as  to  be  completely 
absorbed.  All  that  is  personal  and  self-centered  is 
abandoned  that  the  individual  may  be  lost  in  the  infi- 
nite One.  The  boundaries  between  natural  and 
revealed  theology  are  broken  down.  The  finite  really 
does  not  exist.     Salvation  consists  in  the  separation 


270    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

of  the  godlike  elements  in  the  soul  from  the  finite,  and 
then  through  unlimited  contemplation  man  becomes  a 
son  of  God. 

The  second  great  German  mystic  was  John  Tauler, 
1290-1361. 

Tauler  was  born  at  Strasburg;  studied  at  Cologne; 
imbibed  the  general  principles  of  Eckart;  but  sought 
to  avoid  his  master's  pantheism.  Eckart  was 
extremely  speculative,  like  Erigena  before  him  and 
Hegel  after  him.  Tauler  was  above  all  things  prac- 
tical. He  was  a  great  preacher,  and  exerted  a  power- 
ful influence  in  Strasburg  and  Cologne.  His  theoretical 
mysticism  sometimes  showed  itself  sufficiently  to 
arouse  suspicion. 

The  conflict  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  had 
caused  Germany  to  be  laid  under  the  interdict.  This 
misery  was  intensified  by  the  Black  Death  which  pre- 
vailed during  1348-9.  The  people  were  left  to  die 
without  the  consolations  of  religion.  Tauler  led  a 
remonstrance  to  the  clergy,  in  which  this  heretical 
maxim  occurred:  "He  who  confesses  the  true  faith  of 
Christ,  and  sins  only  against  the  person  of  the  pope,  is 
no  heretic." 

Eckart's  mysticism  in  modified  form  expressed  itself 
still  further — in  John  Ruysbroek,  1298-1386,  who  had  a 
deep  knowledge  of  the  spiritual  needs  of  his  times; 
and  in  Henry  Suro,  1295-1366,  in  whose  religious 
nature  the  emotional  side  was  cultivated  to  a  large 
degree. 

Other  types  of  mysticism  are  seen  in  the  Friends 
of  God;  in  Thomas  a  Kempis,  famous  for  his  ImitatioJi 
of  Christ ;  John  Gerson,  who  sought  to  reconcile  the 
opposing  tendencies  of  scholasticism  and  mysticism; 
and  in  Girolamo  Savonarola,  whose  fundamental  posi- 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther  271 

tions  logically  led  to  a  complete  breaking  away  from 
the  church;  John  of  Goch;  John  of  Wesel;  and  John 
Wessel,  whose  ideas  of  grace  through  faith  Luther 
found  in  perfect  harmony  with  his  own. 

The  mystics  cannot  justly  be  connected  with  the 
sect  known  as  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the  Free 
Spirit.  This  sect  existed  in  the  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries,  and  were  strong  in  exactly  the  same 
localities  where  the  mystics  were  strong — along  the 
Rhine,  and  especially  at  Cologne,  which  was  their 
chief  center.  They  represented  the  extreme  of  panthe- 
ism and  antinomianism.  God  was  incarnate  in  every 
pious  person.  "Whatever  was  done  in  love  was 
right."  The  perfect  were  above  law.  They  antag- 
onized the  church,  marriage  and  property. 

D.   The  Church  in  England  (1297-1485) 

On  the  continent  we  have  seen  the  decay  of  the 
papacy,  and  the  degeneracy  of  the  clergy;  the  conflict 
of  church  and  state  leading  to  the  removal  of  the  papal 
see  to  Avignon;  the  Great  Schism  and  the  consequent 
humiliation  of  the  papacy;  the  reforming  councils 
and  their  apparent  failure.  All  these  events  indicate 
declension  in  the  church. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  beheld  a  rising 
spirit  of  independence,  a  disposition  on  the  part  of 
earnest  Christians  to  awaken  a  new  spirit  of  moral 
earnestness.  This  new  spirit  has  expressed  itself  in 
many  forms,  and,  although  there  is  no  centralized  gen- 
eral movement,  the  tendency  towards  reformation  is 
unmistakable. 

The  results  of  these  continental  movements  were 
felt  in  England.  In  their  broad  outlines  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  are  a  period  of  spiritual 


272    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

declension.  The  church  forfeited  the  respect  of  men. 
They  ceased  to  think  of  it  as  divine  and  supreme. 
They  rather  thought  of  it  as  being  on  a  level  with 
political  institutions,  and  they  treated  it  accordingly — 
indeed,  they  questioned  its  moral  influence. 

Such  a  condition  of  mind  never  remains  long  inac- 
tive. In  this  case  it  expressed  itself  in  anti-papal  and 
anti-clerical  legislation.  This  legislation  takes  the 
following  forms:  The  statute,  De  Religiosis,  (1279),  the 
object  of  which  was  to  prevent  the  acquisition  of  land  by 
religious  corporations;  the  statute,  Circiunspecte  Agatis 
(1285),  whose  object  was  to  check  encroachments  of 
the  ecclesiastical  courts;  the  refusal  of  the  papal 
claims  to  adjudicate  in  civil  matters,  viz.,  the  case  of 
Boniface  VIII.  when  he  wished  to  adjudicate  between 
England  and  Scotland;  iht  Stattite  of  Provisors  (1351), 
which  made  the  obtaining  of  a  benefice  by  reservation 
or  provision  from  the  pope,  in  derogation  of  the  rights 
of  patrons,  an  offence  punishable  by  fine  or  imprison- 
ment; the  Statute  of  PrcBmimire,  which  inflicted  the 
penalty  of  outlawry  upon  all  Englishmen  who  appealed 
to  foreign  courts  in  matters  which  should  come  before 
the  king's  court.* 

But  these  manifestations  indicate  that  while  the 
church  is  losing  its  power  there  are  antagonistic  forces 
that  are  steadily  gaining  in  strength.  These  forces  are 
found  in  the  rising  spirit  of  freedom  which  is  seen  in 
the  rise  of  a  free  laboring  class  who  worked  by  the 
day — known  as  journeymen;  in  the  new  literary 
activity  as  seen  in  Chaucer,  the  poet  of  the  court,  who 
gently  chides  the  corruptness  of  the  clergy;  and 
Langland,  who  sang  the  people's  woes,  and  taught  the 
equality  of  all   men  before   God,    and   the   gospel   of 

*See  Wakeman:  p.  144  flf. 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    273 

labor;  and  in  the  appearance  of  John  Wiclif,  who 
arose  to  denounce  the  wealthy  and  degenerate  church. 

When  the  spirit  of  freedom  arises  it  is  sure  to  be  uni- 
versal in  its  manifestations.  It  finally  takes  in  all 
phases  of  society.  This  was  a  most  auspicious  time 
for  Wiclif  to  come  upon  the  scene.  This  remarkable 
man  arises  as  a  protest  against  the  prevailing  tend- 
encies of  his  day — not  only  in  England  but  on  the  Con- 
tinent as  well.  He  is  strong  in  intellect  and  pure  in 
heart.  As  a  student  at  Oxford  he  early  distinguished 
himself.  As  a  statesman  he  strikes  powerful  and 
effective  blows  against  papal  extortion.  As  a  preacher 
he  sways  the  masses  with  his  English  sermons  at  Lut- 
terworth, and  profoundly  stirs  the  scholars  with  his 
Latin  sermons  at  Oxford.  Through  his  English  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  he  sends  a  thrill  of  new  life  through 
all  England.  As  a  philosopher  and  theologian  he 
beats  down  most  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  Roman- 
ism. He  came  to  the  end  of  his  great  career  in 
violent  conflict  with  the  hierarchy. 

But  Wiclif's  influence  was  not  confined  to  England. 
There  were  already  thirty  or  forty  universities  in 
existence,  and  the  students  were  in  the  habit  of  pass- 
ing from  one  to  the  other,  in  order  that  they  might 
hear  all  the  most  famous  professors.  In  this  way 
Wiclif's  fame  and  his  works  went  all  over  Europe. 
His  writings  in  many  of  their  leading  features  expressed 
the  convictions  of  John  Hus,  and  inspired  him  to 
greater  activity  in  his  wonderful  career.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  Council  of  Constance  it  has  been  seen 
how  Wiclif's  writings  were  condemned,  and  how  it 
was  decreed  that  his  body  should  be  dug  up  and 
burned. 


274    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

LITERATURE 
Lechler:  Joanjiis  Wiclif  Trialogus. 
Arnold:   Wy cliff e' s  English  Sermons.     3  Vols. 
Lechler  :  John  Wycliffe  and  His  Ejiglish  Precursors. 
Trevelyan :  The  Age  of  Wiclif. 
Sergeant:  Jolm  Wyclif 

E.    Christian  Life 

This  period  is  transitional.  Society  is  breaking 
away  from  the  old  and  embracing  the  new.  After  a 
long,  bitter,  and  tragical  conflict  reason  has  advanced 
to  the  front  and  exercises  the  right  to  sit  in  judgment 
on  the  motives  and  deeds  of  priests  and  princes.  The 
common  people  come  into  self-consciousness,  and  they 
are  beginning  effectively  to  assert  themselves,  and  we 
see  the  rise  of  a  new  and  tremendous  social  force. 

The  causes  of  this  momentous  advance  towards  some 
certain  but  as  yet  indefinite  end  are  not  far  to  seek. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  previous  history  of  the 
church.  We  have  seen  the  age  of  the  apostles;  the 
age  of  the  fathers;  the  age  of  the  schoolmen;  and  the 
age  of  the  humanists.  Dante,  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio 
have  made  their  powerful  contributions  to  literature. 
Giotto  and  Arnolfo  have  inaugurated  a  revolution  in 
art,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michelangelo,  and 
Raphael  are  about  to  bring  it  to  perfection.  The  net 
results  are  found  in  a  decided  elevation  and  purifica- 
tion of  taste. 

The  conquest  of  Constantinople  in  1453  had  driven 
scholars  to  the  west,  and  thus  intensified  the  desire  for 
learning;  the  great  discoveries  had  enlarged  men's 
conceptions  of  man  and  the  world;  the  development 
of  modern  languages  is  put  far  ahead;  Wiclif's  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  has  shed  a  great   light  in   England; 


From  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  Luther    275 

and  the  printing  press  was  devoting  itself  to  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge. 

But  we  naturally  turn  to  ask  what  the  church  is 
doing  in  the  presence  of  such  evidence  that  a  new 
spirit  is  everywhere  breaking  out.  Surely  she  ought 
to  be  able  to  read  as  she  runs.  But  not  so.  She  went 
right  on  developing  downwards.  This  is  seen  in  the 
sacramental  system;  in  the  worship  of  the  Virgin;  in 
penance,  which  on  one  side  becomes  ascetic,  and  on 
the  other  becomes  liberal  and  easy.  Since  all  could 
not  go  to  Rome,  Rome  arranged  to  go  to  all,  and  the 
"pardoner,"  the  recognized  official  of  the  pope,  was 
soon  found  everywhere.  Religion  becomes  more  and 
more  external,  objective,  empty,  and  the  results  are 
quickly  seen  in  the  lives  of  its  professors. 

The  clergy  had  long  been  a  subject  of  satire  among 
literary  men.  As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Petrarch  this 
had  been  so.  He  refers  to  Avignon  as  "Impious 
Babylon — avaricious  Babylon — the  school  of  errors  — 
the  temple  of  heresy — the  forge  of  fraud — the  hell  of 
the  living."  In  one  of  his  sonnets  he  calls  for  the 
wrathful  fire  from  heaven  to  alight  upon  the  base  city, 
and  smite  her  harlot  tresses,  and  after  an  appalling 
catalogue  of  "vices  hatched  in  that  foul  nest  of 
treason"  he  closes  with  these  words: 

"In  former  days  thou  wast  not  laid 
On  down,  nor  under  cooling  shade ; 
Thou  naked  to  the  wind  wast  given, 
And  through  the  sharp  and  thorny  road 
Thy  feet  without  the  sandals  trod; 
But  now  thy  life  is  such,  it  smells  to  heaven." 

F.   The  Dawn  of  the  Reformation 

The  Middle  Age  was  full  of  striking  contradictions. 
These  contradictions  were  often   found   in   the   same 


27G    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

individual.  The  gospel  only  slowly  made  its  way  to 
the  hearts  of  men  and  took  complete  possession  of 
those  hearts.  Many  of  the  men  of  the  Middle  Age 
were  no  doubt  hypocrites  and  scoundrels,  but  they 
ought  not  to  be  so  branded  in  any  peremptory  fashion. 
The  time,  however,  has  now  come  for  some  gigantic 
change,  and  presentiments  are  not  wanting  that  it  is 
just  at  hand.  The  weakness  and  inefficiency  of  the 
ecclesiastical  system  were  evident  to  all  thoughtful  per- 
sons. The  reforming  councils  had  apparently  failed, 
but  the  failure  was  only  apparent.  Each  one  of  them 
by  the  very  fact  of  its  meeting  had  emphasized  the 
need  of  reform,  and  thus  brought  the  crisis  a  step 
nearer.  Persecution  had  not  exterminated  the  sects. 
The  Waldenses  were  especially  vigorous  and  prosper- 
ous. Moreover,  there  had  been  several  outbursts  of 
reformatory  force  in  localities  widely  separated 
geographically— Wiclif  in  England,  Hus  in  Bohemia, 
Savonarola  in  Florence. 

At  last  the  times  were  ripe  for  the  crisis.  The  lines 
converged  in  Martin  Luther.  Step  by  step  he  was  led 
on  in  his  opposition  to  the  degenerate  church,  until 
he  was  excommunicated  in  1520.  "Every  chance  of 
compromise  vanished  at  this  point;  it  forms  one  of  the 
most  momentous  epochs  in  the  world's  history.  The 
deep  and  simultaneous  heaving  that  was  felt  soon 
afterwards  in  Switzerland,  in  Spain,  in  Poland,  and  in 
Scandinavia,  in  the  British  Islands  and  in  Hungary,  in 
France  and  in  Belgium,  and  in  the  papal  states  them- 
selves, as  well  as  in  the  German  provinces  extending 
from  the  Baltic  to  the  Tyrol,  proved  that  all  things 
were  now  fully  ripe  for  some  gigantic  change.  T/ie 
Reformation  had  arrived"  (Hardwick,  p.  412-13). 


BOOK    THIRD 

MODERN   CHURCH   HISTORY 


CHAPTER   I 

MODERN    CHURCH    HISTORY 

From  the  Posting  of  Luther's  Ninety-five  Theses 
TO  THE  Present  Time 

(1517-1902) 

LITERATURE 

Lodge:  A  History  of  Modem  Eiirope.  An  exceedingly 
valuable  collection  of  the  essential  general  facts  of 
modern  European  history  concisely  and  clearly 
expressed. 

SchwilL  History  of  Modern  Etirope.  A  scholarly  and 
valuable  short  history. 

Duruy:  History  of  Modern  Times. 

History  never  breaks  with  itself.  To  the  superficial 
reader  it  often  seems  that  it  does.  But  upon  deeper 
study  it  alvv^ays  turns  out  that  history  is  one  vast, 
infinitely  complicated,  progressive  movement.  In  its 
long  stretches  this  movement  invariably  turns  out  to 
be  a  movement  upward  towards  perfection.  But  per- 
fection is  always  far  ahead  in  the  dim  future. 

What  we  call  the  modern  period  is  introduced  by 
several  striking  personalities,  and  by  tumultuous 
changes  in  society.  And  yet  when  we  seek  for  exact 
dates  we  find  that  they  do  not  exist.  This  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  historians  do  not  agree.  The  division 
itself  is  arbitrary,  and  is  used  only  for  convenience. 
The  historian   is   not  surprised  at   the  appearance  of 

279 


280    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

these  remarkable  phenomena.  He  has  seen  them  in 
process  of  becoming  for  centuries.  And  when  at  last 
they  appear  in  their  tremendous  manifestations  he 
says  it  is  only  what  was  to  be  expected. 

If  men  had  been  less  selfish  and  more  sincere,  and 
altruistic,  the  course  of  events  might  have  run  in  a 
different  direction.  But  they  have  sinned  grievously, 
and  now  they  have  to  learn  by  bitter  experience  that 
sin  will  always  be  punished  even  in  this  world,  and 
sadly  enough  the  innocent  are  involved. 

The  modern  period  begins  with  an  upheaval  that 
goes  by  the  name  of  The  Reformation.  When  The 
Reformation  began  it  is  impossible  to  say.  Its  begin- 
nings were  microscopic;  its  development  gradual — at 
first  imperceptible.  For  a  long  time  reformers  had 
comparatively  little  influence.  They  were  going 
against  the  current,  and  to  men  less  resolute  the  out- 
look must  have  been  into  hopelessness. 

On  the  other  hand  the  hierarchy  steadily  and 
rapidly  grew  in  strength,  differentiated  itself,  and 
finally  controlled  all  life  in  its  various  phases — social, 
political,  literary,  artistic,  as  well  as  religious. 

But  we  have  also  observed  the  rise  of  a  general 
hostility  to  the  hierarchy.  This  opposition  became 
effective  only  when  through  the  tyranny  of  the 
hierarchy  the  suffering  of  the  world  became  too  great 
for  endurance.  It  was  evident  that  there  must  be  a 
radical  change  or  Christendom  must  perish.  The 
steps  in  such  a  process  are  usually  growth,  prosperity, 
ease,  luxury,  corruption,  suffering,  discontent,  revolu- 
tion, reformation. 

When  discontent  has  matured  through  suffering  it 
always  expresses  itself  through  great  men.  Great  men 
are  condensed  expressions  of  universal  will  at  critical 


Modern  Church  History  281 

periods  in  history.  But  they  are  much  more  than 
this.  They  are  persons.  They  condense  into  them- 
selves the  whole  spirit  of  their  times  and  by  the  power 
of  their  personality  give  it  a  new  impulse  and  point 
out  the  direction  in  which  it  shall  move  for  a  long 
time  to  come. 

Great  men  speak  out  the  thoughts  that  struggle  for 
expression  in  the  hearts  of  the  unrecorded  millions. 
The  motives  of  these  men  are  sometimes  pure,  but 
more  frequently  mixed.  They  usually  speak  better 
than  they  know.  Many  of  them  would  be  startled  if 
they  could  see  the  consequences  that  are  to  flow  from 
their  utterances.  As  a  rule  they  intend  to  be  con- 
servative, but  their  expressions  contain  the  germs  of 
deep  and  widespread  and  far-reaching  revolution. 

Many  of  these  men  have  already  come  within  our 
review — Francis  of  Assisi,  Frederick  II.,  Dante, 
Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Marsilio  of  Padua,  Savonarola, 
Wiclif,  Hus. 

The  rising  spirit  of  the  preceding  centuries  found 
clear,  simple  and  concise  expression,  but  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  sixteenth  century  the  pent-up  forces  of  The 
Reformation  were  ready  to  convulse  all  Europe. 

It  was  the  same  spirit  everywhere,  but  it  was  to  be 
differently  shaped  by  the  various  environments  arising 
out  of  the  social  and  political  phenomena  of  the  sepa- 
rate nations,  and  out  of  the  peculiar  mental  tempera- 
ments of  the  great  leaders.  Thus  in  Germany  it  will 
take  one  form;  in  German  Switzerland  another;  in 
French  Switzerland  another;  and  in  England  still 
another  which  will  differ  very  widely  from  those  on 
the  Continent. 

But  the  conception  of  reformation  once  partially 
realized  could  not  stop  in  the  process  of  realization  at 


282     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

the  date — 1648 — usually  given  as  the  close  of  the 
period.  The  new  credal  statements  were  not  ultimate. 
They  were  to  serve  their  day  and  generation,  and  then 
be  subject  to  modification  just  as  the  pre-reformation 
creeds  had  been  modified.  And  so  right  on  down  to 
our  own  times,  through  differences  and  conflicts, 
through  the  anxious  care  of  the  conservative,  and  the 
recklessness  of  the  radical,  reformation  has  moved 
steadily  on.  But  through  it  all  the  constants  of 
Christian  history  have  remained  ever  the  same,  and  the 
faith  of  the  individual  Christian  has  grown  clearer  and 
stronger  with  every  passing  century. 

With  a  purified  and  clarified  Christianity  come 
larger  and  truer  conceptions  of  the  infinite  worth  of 
the  individual,  and  consequently  the  better  adjustment 
of  the  mutual  relations  of  men  in  society. 

Coincident  with  these  great  social  and  religious 
movements  was  the  advent  of  printing  and  the  new 
discoveries.  From  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury a  new  line  of  political  and  ecclesiastical  develop- 
ment will  demand  the  increasing  attention  of  the 
historian— the  growth  of  institutions  in  America. 

It  will  become  ever  clearer  to  the  student  of  this 
period  that  nothing  in  history  takes  place  suddenly; 
that  nothing  takes  place  in  isolation,  but  rather  always 
in  combination;  that  The  Reformation  was  not  simply 
a  religious  movement  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  but  rather  a  world  movement,  reaching  far 
back  into  the  past  and  far  forward  into  the  future. 


CHAPTER    II 

THE   PERIOD    OF   THE   REFORMATION 

(1517-1648) 

LITERATURE 

Schilling:  Qiiellenbiich  ziir  Geschichte  der  Neiizeit, 
PP-  i"i73-  ^  very  valuable  and  interesting  collection 
of  documents. 

Vedder:  Historical  Leaflets.  Translations  with  critical 
notes  from  Reformation  Documents.  The  series  may 
be  continued  indefinitely — of  great  value. 

Wace  and  Buchheim:  Luther  s  Primary  Works.  Very 
important. 

Whitcomb:  A  Literary  Source  Book  of  the  German 
Re?iaissance.     Excellent. 

Seebohm:   The  Era  of  the  Protesta7it  Revolution. 

Lindsay:  TJie  Reformation.  To  the  very  general 
reader  the  latter  two  volumes  will  be  of  the  greatest 
service — as  placing  the  emphasis  respectively  upon 
the  political  and  religious  sides. 

Babington:  The  Reformation.  A  new,  popular  and 
valuable  work. 

Spalding:  History  of  the  Reformatio?i — Romanist. 

Balmes:  Europe a?i  Civilization.  A  reply  to  Guizot's 
lectures  on  "The  History  of  Civilization.' 

Walker:  The  Reformation.  Ln  Ten  Epochs.  A  fresh 
and  interesting  statement. 

Hausser :   The  Period  of  the  Reformation. 

283 


284    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Fisher  :  History  of  the  Reformation.  The  above  two 
excellent  works  are  supplementary.  Hausser  is  strong 
on  the  political  side,  while  Fisher  elaborates  with 
great  impartiality  the  ecclesiastical  side. 

Beard:  The  Reformation  i7i  Its  Relation  to  Moderji 
Thought  and  Knowledge.  Ably  written  from  a  Uni- 
tarian point  of  v^iew.     Hibbert  Lectures,  2d  ed.,  1885. 

DbUinger:  Die  Reformation,  Hire  inner e  Ejitwickliing 
nnd  ihre  Wirkiingen.  3  vols.  From  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic point  of  view.  Strongly  written — unfavorable  to 
the  Reformation. 

Janssen:  Geschichte  des  Deutsche 71  Volkes  seit  dem  Aus- 
ga?ig  des  Mittelalters.  8  vols.  Attempts  to  show  the 
complete  failure  of  the  Reformation.  Called  out  nu- 
merous replies  from  the  ablest  Protestant  scholars — as 
Kostlin. 

Hardwick:  A  History  of  the  Christian   Church  During 
the  Reformation.     Has  all  the  strength  of  the  author's 
Church  in  the  Middle  Ages.     3d  ed.  by  Bishop  Stubbs. 
Tulloch:  Leaders  of  the  Reformatio?!. 
Emerton:  Erasmus.     In  Great  Reformers  Series. 
Edgar:   The  Ge?iesis  of  Protestantism.     A  recent  clear 
and  valuable  statement  of  the  issues  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. 

Gray:  Aspects  of  Protestantism.  Recent,  popular,  and 
interesting. 

For  complete  bibliographies  the  student  will  go  to 
Schaff:  History  of  the  Christian  Church — Vol.  VI  on  the 
German  Reformation,  and  Vol.  VII  on  the  Swiss 
Reformation;  and  to  Hurst:  A  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,  Vol.  II,  just  published,  igoo. 

For  the  Creeds  he  will  go  to  Schaflf:  Creeds  of  Chris- 
te7idom — Vol.  I  for  short  history,  and  Vol.  Ill  for  the 
Documents. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  285 

A.   The  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Europe 
AT  THE  Opening  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 

The  old  social  system  which  is  now  to  be  tried  and 
found  wanting  is  seen  to  be  gathered  around  three 
principal  centers.  Each  of  these  we  have  seen  arise, 
grow  to  maturity  and  enter  upon  its  period  of  decline. 
These  centers  are:  The  Hierarchy,  with  its  head  at 
Rome;  Scholasticism,  with  its  chief  center  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris;  and  Feudalism,  which  seemed  to  be 
the  only  possible  organization  of  society  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  which  spread  all  over  Europe,  and  which  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  national  state — which  in  its  turn 
is  to  be  the  political   achievement  of  modern  history. 

Five  new  nations  in  various  stages  of  development 
appear  upon  the  scene,  and  are,  with  a  single  excep- 
tion, to  move  on  through  conflict  towards  perfect 
political  unity. 

In  Italy  there  is  no  unity.  Naples,  the  Papal 
States,  Florence,  Venice,  and  Milan  were  the  five  chief 
and  almost  equally  powerful  centers  which  perpetually 
quarreled  and  fought  among  themselves. 

In  the  mediaeval  period  we  saw  the  ecclesiastical 
system,  with  Rome  for  its  head,  grow  up  until  it  for  a 
short  time  made  good  its  claim  to  universality.  We 
also  saw  the  papal  court  become  entirely  corrupt  and 
self-centered.  We  noted  the  scathing  denunciation  of 
literary  men  and  political  philosophers  like  Dante, 
Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  and  Marsilius  of  Padua.  Now, 
when  we  seek  for  the  explanation  of  this  political  dis- 
traction it  becomes  easy  to  believe  that  Machiavelli  is 
right  when  he  lays  the  responsibility  at  the  door  of  the 
papacy.  It  was  the  popes  who,  moved  by  their  selfish 
ambition,  invited  foreign  invasion.  Alexander  VI. 
invited  Charles  VIII.  of  France  to  make  his   incursion 


286     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

into  Italy.  Julius  II.,  1503-1513,  was  famous  as  a  fight- 
ing pope.  He  formed  the  League  of  Cambray,  which 
consisted  of  himself  and  France  and  Austria,  for  the 
purpose  of  humbling  Venice.  Then  as  soon  as  this 
was  accomplished  he  repaid  Louis  XII.,  king  of 
France,  for  the  leading  part  he  had  taken,  by  forming 
the  Holy  League,  in  which  Venice,  Spain,  England, 
and  Austria  united  with  him  against  France.  The 
result  of  this  league  was  that  Louis  was  eliminated 
from  Italian  politics. 

Germany  is  nominally  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  and 
so  imperial,  but  really  Germany  is  feudal.  The  idea 
that  the  empire  is  universal  has  been  given  up.  The 
decentralizing  tendencies  of  feudalism  have  here  under 
favorable  conditions  become  well  developed  realities. 
Yet  there  are  many  evidences  that  feudalism  is  begin- 
ning to  decline.  The  vassals  no  longer  render  direct 
service.  The  wars  of  the  princes  are  for  the  most  part 
carried  on  by  means  of  mercenaries.  Gunpowder  has 
worked  a  revolution.  A  military  class  comes  into 
existence.  The  members  of  this  class  had  no  cause  to 
serve,  no  principles  for  which  they  fought.  They 
were  at  the  service  of  the  highest  bidder. 

The  Hanseatic  League  was  at  this  time  in  the  height 
of  its  prosperity.  Through  its  protection  and  dis- 
cipline the  free  cities  had  become  very  powerful,  so 
that  they  could  resist  the  encroachments  of  the 
princes.  They  were  centers  of  freedom.  Within  the 
cities  were  the  patricians  who  represented  the  old 
families,  and  the  guilds  who  represented  the  com- 
monalty. Through  numerous  contests  the  guilds 
made  their  way  to  the  front,  and  the  government  of 
the  free  cities  became  more  and  more  democratic* 

*See  Zimmern  :  T/ie  Hansa  Towns. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  287 

The  Mediaeval  Empire  became  familiar  to  the  Ger- 
mans and  the  German  ideas  of  law  and  justice  grad- 
ually gave  way  to  the  Roman  law,  and  so  instead 
of  the  growth  of  a  code  of  German  law  the  people 
came  to  think  of  themselves  as  subject  to  the  Roman 
law.  This  change  was  naturally  encouraged  by  the 
emperors  who  placed  the  imperial  far  above  the  kingly 
dignity. 

Germany  was  already  much  under  the  influence  of 
the  humanistic  movement  which  we  have  seen  arise  in 
Italy  and  spread  far  -  and  wide.  The  universities  of 
Vienna,  Heidelberg,  Cologne,  and  Erfurt  had  been 
founded  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  universities  were  established  at  Rostock, 
Tubingen,  Greifswald  and  Leipsic.  While  these  seats 
of  learning  had  never  entirely  neglected  the  Latin 
classics,  they  had  been  mainly  concerned  with  theology 
and  the  scholastic  philosophy.  But  now  the  interest 
in  scholasticism  grows  less,  while  the  interest  in  all 
classical  literature — both  Latin  and  Greek — becomes 
all-absorbing.  The  teachers  in  this  humanistic  awaken- 
ing are  Reuchlin,  Erasmus,  and  Ulrich  von  Hutten. 

But  this  new  spirit  of  freedom  which  has  been  grow- 
ing for  so  long  extends  beyond  the  more  favored  who 
are  found  in  the  trades  and  universities.  It  is  quicken- 
ing the  lives  of  the  people.  They  are  beginning  also 
to  think  and  to  demand  their  rights.  Through  such 
books  as  Tyll  EiUenspiegel,  and  Rei?teke  Fuchs,  and 
Narrenschiff,  they  learn  that  a  great  many  things  are 
wrong.  The  clergy  especially  are  held  up  to  ridicule. 
The  condition  of  the  peasants  and  serfs  is  most 
deplorable,  and  the  time  is  now  near  at  hand  when 
they  will  make  their  formal  demands. 

These  facts  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  political 


288     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  social  condition  of  German^Lwas  chaotic.  Differ- 
ent emperors  conceived  grand  schemes  Tor~unification. 
But  the  times  were  not  yet  full.  Many  of  the  elements 
of  progress  are  here,  but  they  are  not  yet  sufficiently 
disengaged  for  combination.  This  disengagement  can 
come  about  only  through  convulsions  and  apparent 
confusion. 

The  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  v^^as  the 
period  of  Spain's  greatness.  Through  war,  as  the 
driving  out  of  the  Moors;  through  diplomacy;  through 
fortune,  as  the  discovery  of  America;  and  through 
marriages,  Spain  was  able  to  attain  her  persistent  pur- 
pose of  unifying  her  people  and  extending  her  domin- 
ions to  a  very  great  extent.  At  the  election  of  Charles 
V.  in  1 5 19  to  the  imperial  crown  Spain  was  the  great- 
est nation  in  the  world.  But  Charles  was  one  of  the 
worst  misfits  in  history.  He  was  mediaeval  to  the  core 
of  his  being,  but  he  was  confronted  by  conditions 
essentially  modern,  and  conditions,  too,  that  had 
within  themselves  the  power  to  prevail.  The  result 
was  naturally  a  mistaken  governmental  and  ecclesias- 
tical policy  which  laid  the  foundation  for  Spanish  mis- 
rule, tyranny,  and  cruelty,  all  of  which  have  ruined 
the  Spanish  state  both  in  its  domestic  and  in  its  foreign 
relations.* 

The  duchy  of  France,  starting  with  the  Capetian 
dynasty,  and  the  law  of  primogeniture,  gradually 
through  conquest,  through  purchase  and  through  mar- 
riage absorbed  other  duchies.  And  so  by  the  opening 
of  the  sixteenth  century  her  external  unity  became 
seemingly  complete. 

But  the  monarchy  became  absolute,  the  classes 
became  separated,  and   the   people  were   robbed   and 

*See  Lea  :   T/i^  Moriscos  of  Spam,  for  concrete  case. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  289 

starved  through  taxation  and  by  armies  passing 
through  their  country.  The  kings  were  led  off  by 
temptations  to  foreign  conquests.  Thus  by  various 
kinds  of  mismanagement  France  prepared  the  way 
for  the  fearful  retribution  that  was  to  come  upon  her 
in  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  England  the  spirit  and  method  had  from  the 
beginning  been  altogether  different  from  those  of  the 
Continent.  The  government  very  early  by  the  very 
force  of  its  antecedents  became  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  laws  were  made  by  ki?ig,  and  lords,  and 
commo?is,  and  all  were  subject  to  these  laws.  There 
was  never  any  caste  in  England.  The  law  of  inherit- 
ance was  that  of  primogeniture.  The  other  sons  and 
daughters  became  commoners.  The  nobility  after 
having  served  their  purpose  had  been  pretty  nearly 
destroyed  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  The  two  sides 
united  in  Henry  VII.,  and  development  proceeds  more 
and  more  towards  solidarity  in  Henry  VIII.  and  the 
rest  of  the  Tudors. 

These  general  and  representative  facts  lead  us  to  the 
conclusion  that  at  the  dawn  of  the  Reformation  Euro- 
pean society  was  in  a  condition  of  unstable  equilib- 
rium. States  entirely  distinct  with  natural  boundaries 
have  not  yet  been  formed,  but  the  formation  is  just 
about  to  take  place.  Great  individuals  are  both  short- 
sighted and  selfish.  The  people  as  yet  do  not  count 
for  much.  A  spirit  of  national  patriotism  which  shall 
enter  the  hearts  of  men  and  lead  them  to  give  their 
lives  for  their  country  if  need  be  has  yet  to  be  devel- 
oped. It  accordingly  becomes  clear  to  us  that,  taking 
the  situation  as  it  is,  and  taking  man  as  he  is,  there 
remains  but  one  way  in  which  society  can  pass  from 
chaos   to  order.       That  way  leads   through    conflicts 


290     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

These  conflicts  will  be  ^Jitical,  social,  reHgious. 
They  will  often  be  so  blended  that  no  distinct  lines  of 
separation  can  be  drawn.  The  Reformation  affected 
society  in  all  its  phases. 

B.   The  Revolution 

When  the  cataclysm  finally  came  it  was  thorough- 
going. There  was  no  further  hope  of  reformation 
within  the  church.  The  political  and  social  institu- 
tions had  outlived  their  usefulness.  New  intellectual 
and  spiritual  forces  were  now  violently  to  break  the 
bands  that  had  so  long  held  them,  and  to  spring  forth 
with  irresistible  power. 

We  are  briefly  to  examine  this  new  life  in  its  leading 
manifestations. 

A.    ITALY 

In  Italy  the  Revolution  was  predominantly  intellec- 
tual. The  discontent,  as  we  may  again  repeat,  finds 
early  literary  expression  in  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boc- 
caccio. It  culminates  in  the  paganized  and  paganiz- 
ing Platonic  Academy  at  Florence  under  the  patronage 
of  Lorenzo  de  Medici.  The  great  lights  of  this  school 
were  Poliziano,  Ficino,  and  Pico  della  Mirandola. 

Other  cities  shared  in  this  new  enthusiasm,  and  we 
have  as  results  the  revival  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics;  the  towns  as  centers  of  intellectual  life;  a 
new  zeal  for  beauty  and  elegant  life  as  opposed  to 
asceticism. 

But,  as  has  already  been  suggested,  we  are  not  to 
suppose  that  there  was  any  conscious  purpose  of 
spiritual  reformation  in  this  intellectual  awakening. 
"It  was,"  says  Sohm,  p.  149,  "pagan  to  the  very 
core."  The  Italian  cities  were  brilliant  in  culture, 
rich  in  natural  talents,  full  of  creative  power,  but 
immoral  at  heart,  and  "full  of  selfish  animalism." 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  291 

The  influence  of  Italy  was  well  nigh  universal. 
Scholars  flocked  to  her  schools  from  all  Christendom. 
Notable  examples  are  Linacre,  Grocyn,  and  Colet — 
the  Englishmen,  and  Erasmus — the  cosmopolitan. 
Through  men  like  these  the  humanism  that  had  its 
origin  in  Italy  spread  through  all  the  countries  north 
of  the  Alps,  and  was  utilized  for  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Thus  we  can  truly  say  that  the  Italian  Renaissance 
helped  the  Christian  Reformation:  comtriictively  by 
giving  the  Bible  to  the  cultivated  classes  in  the  orig- 
inal languages — the  Old  Testament  largely  through  the 
work  of  Reuchlin,  and  the  New  Testament  mainly 
through  the  great  scholarship  of  Erasmus;  destructively^ 
through  its  merciless  exposures  of  the  hypocrisy  and 
dissoluteness  of  monasticism. 

But  while  the  Renaissance  in  Italy  was  largely 
intellectual  and  pagan,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
nearly  all  through  its  growth  and  usurpations  the 
hierarchy  had  strong  opposition.  This  is  seen  so  late 
as  the  eleventh  century  at  Milan  and  Turin.  There 
were  sects,  such  as  the  Waldenses  and  Arnoldists, 
which  had  considerable  influence.  The  doctrines  of 
Luther  soon  found  their  way  into  Italy,  and  were 
warmly  received.  There  were  important  centers  at 
Ferrara,  Modena,  Florence,  Venice,  Bologna,  Faenza, 
Lucca,  Siena,  Mantua,  and  Naples.  But  as  soon  as 
Rome  could  get  the  power  Protestantism  was  remorse- 
lessly crushed,  and  this  explains  how  it  is  that  so  little 
is  written  about  the  Reformation  in  Italy.* 


*See  McCrie :  The  Refo7-matioii  in  Italy,  an  old  biat  valuable 
book;  and  especially  Comba  :  I  Nostri  Protestanti.  2  vols. — a 
new  work  of  great  value. 


292     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

B.    GERMANY 
LITERATURE 

Kostlin:  Martvi  Luther:  His  Life  and  Writi?igs. 

Jacob:  Martin  Ltither:  The  Hero  of  the  Reformation. 

Kolde:  Martin  Luther:  eine  Biographie.     2  vols. 

Michelet:  Martin  Luther. 

Meurer:  Luther' s  Leben  aus  den  Que  lien  Erzdhlt. 

Frey tag :  Pictures  of  German  Life. 

Frey tag :  Doktor  Lutlier. 

Richard:  Philip  Me  land itJ ion. 

Emerton:  Erasmus. 

We  have  mentioned  the  relapse  into  paganism  that 
characterized  the  revival  of  learning  in  Italy.  This 
resulted  from  the  natural  lack  of  earnestness  that  is  so 
conspicuous  among  the  peoples  south  of  the  Alps. 
North  of  the  Alps  the  condition  is  quite  the  opposite. 
The  Germans  have  always  been  noted  for  their  deep 
and  abiding  seriousness.  They  very  promptly  seized 
upon  all  the  e s sen tiai„t r u t h s  of  the  Renaissance,  and 
used  them  to  awaken  a  genuine  spiritual  revival.  This 
revival  spread  through  all  the  nations  of  northern 
Europe,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  penetrated   Italy  itself. 

The  movement  meant  a  reaction  toward  the  primi- 
tive and  apostolic  faith.  This  phrase  is  often  met  at 
the  origin  of  new  orders  or  branches  of  monasticism. 
But  now  the  idea  has  become  general  and  involves  aJJ 
classes  of  people.  The  times  are  ripe  for  a  general 
advance  in  the  spiritual  growth  of  individuals,  and  in 
the  morality  of  all  western  Europe.  The  western 
world  is  also  to  be  released  from  the  "Judaic  legisla- 
tion that  had  fettered  the  Middle  Ages." 

As  the  hierarchy  had  grown  Christ  had  gradually 
been  dethroned  and  His  place  had  been  usurped  by 
priests,  and  saints,  and  sacraments,  and  especially  by 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  293 

the   worship  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.      But  now  He  is  to 
be  enthroned  again  as  the  true  head  of  the  church. 

But  these  changes  are  to  come  hard,  and  they  can 
come  only  through  the  leadership  of  divinely  inspired 
genius. 

Martin  Luther' s  Career  to  his  Exco^nmitnication  i?i  1^20 

The  German  Reformation  is  almost  synonymous 
with  the  tremendous  personality  of  Martin  Luther, 
1483-1546.  Martin  Luther  was  born  at  a  critical  junc- 
ture in  history,  of  humble  parents,  at  Eisleben  in  1483. 
He  says,  in  his  Table  Talk:  'T  am  the  son  of  a 
peasant;  my  father,  grandfather,  and  ancestors  were 
true  peasants."  He  was  educated  at  Mansfield, 
Magdeburg,  Eisenach,  and  Erfurt.  At  Erfurt  he 
caught  the  spirit  of  humanism,  but  his  deep  religious 
nature  shielded  him  from  its  grossness.  His  father's 
financial  condition  improved  so  that  he  was  able  to 
give  him  excellent  advantages  at  Erfurt.  The  father's 
great  ambition  for  the  son  was  that  he  might  become  a 
distinguished  lawyer.  But  various  experiences  pro- 
duced a  radical  change  in  the  young  man's  heart. 
And  so,  to  the  deep  disappointment  of  his  father,  he 
became  an  Augustinian  monk.  He  chose  the 
Observantists,  who  were  the  severest  in  their  dis- 
cipline. As  an  Augustinian  monk  he  passed  through 
profound  religious  experiences  which  shaped  his 
destiny.  For  he  was  led  to  see  clearly  the  radical 
difference  between  Christianity  and  the  church.  The 
man  who  exercised  the  greatest  influence  on  Luther  at 
this  time  was  the  Vicar-General  John  von  Staupitz — a 
man  of  great  learning  and  genuine  piety.  Yet  he  was 
not  at  the  time  conscious  of  the  complete  change  that 
had  taken  place  at  the  center  of  his  being. 


294    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

In  1508  Luther  was  called  to  the  new  university 
which  had  been  founded  at  Wittenberg  in  1502  by- 
Frederick  the  Wise.  Luther's  great  spiritual  adviser, 
Staupitz,  was  one  of  the  chief  councillors  in  its  estab- 
lishment. Among  the  other  distinguished  men  who 
were  connected  with  this  new  institution  of  learning 
were  Martin  PoUich,  Doctor  of  Medicine,  Law  and 
Theology,  who  came  from  the  University  of  Leipsic, 
and  Andreas  Bodenstein  of  Carlstadt,  whom  we  are  to 
know  later  as  Carlstadt.  All  of  these  men  exerted  an 
important  influence  upon  Luther.  But  the  matter  of 
chief  moment  is  that  as  a  professor  he  was  obliged  to 
reduce  his  convictions  to  propositions.  This  is  always 
a  crucial  point  in  the  career  of  any  man  of  thought. 
For  it  is  then  that  he  comes  to  a  clear  intellectual 
apprehension  of  his  principles  of  action.  But  he  did  not 
yet  feel  the  full  force  of  his  propositions.  He  was  too 
good  a  son  of  the  church  to  allow  his  reason  full  sway. 

In  151 1  the  desire  of  his  heart  for  many  years  was 
realized.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  to  look  after  some 
matters  pertaining  to  a  dispute  between  certain  con- 
vents. Here  he  was  shocked  at  the  corruption  and 
immorality  that  abounded  in  the  clergy  from  the  low- 
est even  up  to  the  papacy  itself.  It  was  while  ascend- 
ing the  twenty-eight  steps  of  the  Scala  Sa7ita,  or  sacred 
stairway,  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Rome  from 
Pilate's  judgment  hall,  that  the  passage,  "The  just 
shall  live  by  faith,"  came  into  his  mind  with  a  new 
meaning  and  force.  More  clearly  than  ever  did  he  see 
the  absolute  contradiction  between  the  externalism  of 
Rome,  and  the  biblical  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith. 

But  notwithstanding  all  this  he  remained  outwardly 
loyal    to    Romanism.      A    great,    deep    nature    like 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  295 

Luther's  could  not  change  suddenly.  The  very  slow- 
ness of  his  transition  is  one  of  his  most  convincing 
testimonials  to  the  truth  of  the  doctrines  that  he 
taught.  When  he  returned  to  the  university  at  Wit- 
tenberg, he  lectured  on  Romans,  Galatians,  and  the 
Psalms.  In  1512  he  was  made  Doctor  of  Theology, 
and  because  he  placed  the  Bible  far  above  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers,  and  the  scholastics — such  as  the  Lom- 
bard and  Thomas  Aquinas — he  chose  to  be  known  as 
"Doctor  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures." 

For  several  centuries  it  had  been  customary  for  the 
church  to  grant  letters  of  indulgence,  by  which  the 
temporal  penalties  of  the  holder  could  be  remitted,  on 
account  of  some  good  deed  that  he  had  done.  In  1506 
they  had  been  sold  by  Julius  II.  to  obtain  money  for  the 
building  of  the  new  church  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 
But  the  theory  had  degenerated  in  practice  to  a  shock- 
ing contradiction.  The  whole  doctrine  had  become  an 
offense  to  true  piety.  Both  the  church  and  God  were 
to  let  sin  go  unpunished,  and  even  a  change  of  heart 
was  not  necessary  to  eternal  happiness. 

When  Leo  X.  came  to  the  papal  throne  he  wished  to 
continue  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  church,  and  he  was 
at  war  with  the  duke  of  Urbino.  He  accordingly 
found  himself  financially  embarrassed.  He  took 
indulgences  as  a  means  of  gathering  funds.  His 
agents  were  found  in  all  the  great  nations.  Tetzel, 
worldly,  avaricious,  and  of  bad  reputation,  became  the 
agent  for  Mainz,  Magdeburg,  and  Brandenburg.  The 
shameless  and  commercial  way  in  which  he  proceeded 
aroused  the  fiercest  resentment  in  Luther.  In  15 16  he 
had  already  preached  against  indulgences.  Fortu- 
nately for  him  the  German  princes  found  that  their 
interests  coincided  with    his  doctrines — for  they  did 


296     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

not  want  money  to  go  out  of  their  principalities  to 
build  up  Italian  enterprises.  They  accordingly  were 
enthusiastic  in  their  support  of  the  fearless  monk. 

But  Luther  perhaps  had  not  yet  made  up  his  mind 
that  indulgences  were  altogether  bad.  He  wanted 
light,  and  he  thought  that  this  light  could  best  come 
through  discussion.  This  led  him  to  the  formulation 
of  the  famous  ninety-five  theses,  which  he  posted  on 
the  door  of  the  castle  church  at  Wittenberg.  He 
claimed  that  no  indulgence  of  a  pope  can  avail  any- 
thing if  there  be  not  genuine  repentance  toward  God. 
He  invited  all  who  might  wish  to  oppose  him  to  a 
joint  debate.  No  one  came.  But  the  theses,  to  the 
surprise  of  Luther,  aroused  all  Germany.  It  is  said 
that  within  a  month  they  were  known  throughout 
Christendom,  They  were  translated  into  German,  and 
so  made  available  to  the  laity.  They  were  looked 
upon  with  high  favor  in  some  quarters,  while  in  others 
they  stirred  up  great  opposition.  The  publication  of 
the  theses  formed  a  milestone  in  the  progress  of  the 
Reformation. 

In  1518  another  great  personality  comes  upon  the 
scene — Philip  Melanchthon.  Melanchthon  is  to  sup- 
plement Luther  in  all  his  deficiencies,  and  sustain  him 
in  the  hours  of  his  greatest  need.  He  was  born  in 
1497,  with  exceptional  endowments.  He  was  educated 
by  his  uncle,  John  Reuchlin — the  great  Hebraist.  He, 
when  very  young,became  a  remarkable  classical  scholar, 
and  was  called  of  God  to  his  responsible  position  at 
Wittenberg  to  become  the  "Teacher  of  Germany." 

Of  course  the  church  had  able  defenders  in  Germany, 
and  numerous  attempts  were  made  to  silence  Luther. 
At  last,  through  the  influence  of  Miltitz,  he  agreed  to 
keep  silent  until  there  could  be  a  final  settlement  on 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  297 

condition  that  his  opponents  would  do  the  same.  But 
Dr.  Eck,  a  professor  at  Ingoldstadt,  had  been  deeply 
stirred,  and  he  could  not  keep  still,  and  the  result  was 
the  Leipsic  disputation,  1519.  In  arranging  for  a 
debate  with  Carlstadt,  Eck  attacked  Luther,  and  so 
the  real  disputation  was  between  Luther  and  Eck. 
The  debate  hinged  on  the  authority  of  councils. 
Luther  denied  such  authority,  relying  on  the  Bible  and 
the  early  Fathers.  Luther  was  attended  by  Melanch- 
thon.  There  was  no  agreement.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  result  was  Luther's  acceptance  of  several  of 
the  Hussite  propositions  as  thoroughly  Christian.  He 
thus  denied  the  infallibility  of  a  general  council,  and  so 
took  his  first  step  towards  a  complete  break  with  Rome. 

After  the  Leipsic  disputation  Luther  continued 
his  attack  on  the  papacy.  The  breach  became  wider 
and  wider.  Eck  was  very  active,  and  largely  through 
his  influence  Luther  was  excommuni.Qated  on  the 
i5th_QL-June,  1520,  by  Leo  X.  Eck  was  authorized 
to  carry  the  bull  to  Germany.  But  the  Germans  were 
jealous  of  their  rival  in  Italy.  They  did  not  readily 
accept  a  decision  from  that  source,  especially  when 
the  accused  had  not  been  heard. 

Almost  coincident  with  the  excommunication  three 
bold  steps  were  taken  by  the  reformer.  The  first  of 
these  was  The  Appeal  to  the  Nobility  of  the  Germa?i 
Nation.  The  main  points  in  this  appeal  were:  The 
rejection  of  papal  interference  in  civil  affairs;  the 
denial  of  a  special  priesthood;  the  assertion  of  the 
priesthood  of  all  believers;  and  the  right  of  believers 
to  choose  their  own  ministers.  Popes  are  subject  to 
Matthew  18:  15-17.* 

*For  the  document  see  Wace  and  Buchheim :  Luther's  Pri- 
mary Works,  pp.  17-92. 


298     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  second  of  these  steps  was  his  attack  on  the 
papacy  known  as  T/ie  Babylonish  Captivity  of  the  Churchy 
in  October,  1520.  Its  leading  points  are:  Denial  of 
transubstantiation,  and  the  substitution  of  what  was 
afterwards  called  consubstantiation;  denial  of  the  right 
to  withhold  the  cup  from  the  laity;  an  attack  on  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mass;  and  the  reduction  of  the  sacra- 
ments from  seven  to  two;  a  rejection  of  the  efficacy  of 
pilgrimages,  fastings  and  other  ordinances  which 
interfere  with  religious  freedom.* 

The  third  step  was  the  public  burning  of  the  bull  of 
excommunication  in  the  market-place  at  Wittenberg, 
on  the  loth  of  December,  1520.  This  act  was  the 
more  easy  because  the  bull  was  generally  regarded  as 
an  infringement  on  the  rights  of  the  civil  power. 

The  net  result  of  all  these  combined  actions  was  that 
the  intrepid  monk  had  broken  with  Rome,  and  was 
out.     He  was  entirely  free  to  take  his  own  course. 

Luther  a?id  the  Htunatiists 
Interests  that  in  many  points  were  identical  soon 
brought  Luther  and  the  humanists  into  relations  more 
or  less  close.  As  soon  as  the  humanists  were  con- 
vinced that  Luther  was  more  than  an  ordinary  monk 
seeking  his  own  selfish  ends,  but  rather  a  man  with 
great  ideas  involving  all  the  interest  of  Germany,  they 
warmly  espoused  his  cause.  There  were  two  classes 
of  these  humanists.  The  first  class  may  be  designated 
as  the  religious  humanists.  The  whole  purpose  of 
their  researches  into  the  philosophy  and  literature  of 
the  ancients  was  that  they  might  throw  new  light  upon 
the  Word  of  God,  and  thus  be  able  to  rid  it  of  the 
human   accretions  which   had  so  greatly  obscured  it. 

*For  document  see  Wace  and  Buchheim,  pp.  241-245. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  299 

The   leading  representatives  of  this  class   were  Reuch- 
lin,  Melanchthon,  and  Erasmus. 

But  there  was  a  second  class  who  may  be  regarded 
as  secular  humanists.  Their  great  purpose  was  not 
merely  literary  but  patriotic.  They  burned  with  indig- 
nation as  they  reflected  upon  the  encroachments  that 
Italy  and  especially  the  papacy  had  made  upon  the 
liberties  of  the  German  people.  Luther's  appeal  to 
the  nobility  had  stirred  them.  They  were  ready  to 
contribute  to  the  movement  with  both  pen  and  sword. 
The  leading  spirit  among  these  humanists  was  Ulrich 
von  Hutten.  He  was  a  poet  and  a  prose  writer.  He 
edited  the  work  of  Laurentius  Valla,  which  proved  the 
falsity  of  The  Donation  of  Constantine — a  forgery  that 
had  helped  to  sustain  the  temporal  power  of  the 
papacy  for  centuries.  This  came  out  in  1520.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to  the  Epistles  of 
Obscure  Me?i.  These  epistles  were  slashing  satires  on 
mediaevalism.  They  laid  bare  the  crimes  of  the 
clergy,  and  the  scandals  of  the  papal  court.  Their 
influence  was  far-reaching — but  their  tone  was  an 
occasion  of  anxiety  to  the  deeply  religious  nature  of 
Luther,  who  doubted  whether  the  cause  of  Christ 
could  be  advanced  by  productions  of  this  kind. 

Hutten  won  over  the  wealthy  and  influential  Franz 
von  Sickingen,  whose  attack  upon  the  Archbishop  of 
Treves  was  a  failure  resulting  in  the  death  of  Sickin- 
gen. 

Luther  and  Charles  V. 

Luther  had  now  completely  broken  with  the  church, 
and  he  had  a  very  large  following  in  Germany.  The 
princes  regarded  him  as  their  champion;  the  humanists 
had  discovered  that  he  was  no  mere  selfish  and  indolent 


300    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

monk,  and  had  espoused  his  cause  with  only  too  great 
zeal;  the  lesser  nobility  expect  to  utilize  the  move- 
ment in  their  own  interests;  the  peasants  see  hope  for 
relief  from  their  wretched  condition.  All  these  facts 
seem  favorable,  but  each  one  of  them  presents  a 
problem  of  extreme  difficulty,  and,  taken  in  combina- 
tion, the  general  problem  is  too  complicated  for  solu- 
tion. 

At  this  juncture  Charles  the  Fifth  appears  upon  the 
scene,  1519.  Here  is  a  great  opportunity  for  him. 
How  will  he  improve  it?  By  marriages  diplomatically 
contracted  by  his  ancestors  he  finds  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  largest  extent  of  territory  since  the  empire.  But 
Charles  was  essentially  a  man  of  the  past.  He  had  no 
depth  of  religious  conviction,  says  Hausser,  and  he 
could  not  understand  it  in  others.  To  him  the  new 
order  of  things,  political,  religious  and  social,  was  a 
thing  only  to  be  destroyed.  There  was  no  important 
particular  in  which  he  was  not  a  misfit. 

a.    The  Diet  of  Worms 

We  may  now  trace  the  Reformation  as  it  advanced 
under  his  reign. 

The  occasion  of  the  emperor's  first  visit  to  Germany 
was  the  Diet  of  Worms,  1521.  Leo  X.,  who  had  at 
first  regarded  Luther  simply  as  a  refractory  monk,  was 
now  thoroughly  aroused,  and  he  urged  the  emperor  to 
put  him  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  He  was  accord- 
ingly summoned,  and  set  out  for  Worms  under  the  safe 
conduct  of  the  emperor.  He  had  an  ovation  all  the 
way.  On  the  first  day  when  he  appeared  before  the 
emperor  and  the  princes  he  was  probably  dazed  by  the 
splendor,  and  asked  time  for  consideration.  But  on 
the  following  day  he  gave  his  famous  answer:    "I  can 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  301 

and  will  retract  nothing,  for  it  is  neither  safe  nor 
expedient  to  act  against  conscience.  Here  I  stand;  I 
can  do  nothing  else.     God  help  me.     Amen." 

Charles  issued  the  Edict  of  Worms.  Luther's  writ- 
ings were  condemned.  He  was  put  under  the  ban  of 
the  empire  and  made  an  outlaw.  Specifically  this 
edict  meant  that  no  one  could  give  him  food  or  shel- 
ter; that  whoever  should  meet  him  should  seize  him 
and  turn  him  over  to  the  emperor;  and  that  as  soon  as 
he  shall  be  apprehended,  "it  will  be  in  order  to  pro- 
ceed to  other  appropriate  remedies  against  this 
severe,  virulent  disease,  .  .  .  the  said  Martin  Luther 
shall  hereafter  be  held  and  esteemed  by  each  and  all 
of  us  as  a  limb  cut  off  from  the  church  of  God,  an 
obstinate  schismatic  and  manifest  heretic." 

The  edict  was  to  go  into  effect  the  moment  the  safe 
conduct  expired.* 

b.  Luther  at  the  Wartbiirg 

Our  reformer  did  not  have  any  time  to  waste.  He 
set  out  for  Wittenberg  as  promptly  as  possible.  But 
on  the  way  he  was  captured  by  his  friends  in  disguise. 
They  took  him  to  the  Wartburg,  where  he  remained 
for  almost  ten  months  Much  of  this  time  was  spent 
in  writing,  and  in  laying  plans  for  the  great  work  just 
before  him.  But  his  chief  work  during  this  period  of 
confinement  was  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
into  the  standard  dialect  of  Saxony.  When  the  Old 
Testament  was  added  the  result  was  a  work  that 
spiritualized  Germany  and  made  the  German  language. 
He  threw  aside  the  theological  style  of  writing.  He 
sought  "the  simplest  and  most  expressive  qualities  of 
the   German   language   in   the  mouths  of  the  German 

*For  the  document  see  Vedder  :  Leaflets  No.  3. 


302    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

people."  Said  he:  "I  cannot  use  the  words  heard  in 
the  castles  and  courts.  ...  I  have  exerted  myself,  in 
translating,  to  give  pure  and  clear  German.  And  it 
has  verily  happened  that  we  have  sought  and  ques- 
tioned a  fortnight,  three,  four  weeks,  for  a  single 
word,  and  yet  it  was  not  always  found.  In  Job,  we  so 
labored,  Philip  Melanchthon,  Aurogallus,  and  I,  that  in 
four  days  we  sometimes  hardly  finished  three  lines." 
The  entire  Bible  was  first  published  complete  in  1534. 
For  various  reasons  the  Edict  of  Worms  was  not 
executed.  Among  these  reasons  was  the  lukewarm- 
ness  of  the  Council  of  Regency,  whose  business  it  was 
to  conduct  the  government  during  the  emperor's 
absence.  The  council  itself  was  favorable  to  reform. 
But  even  if  it  had  not  been  it  was  too  wise  to  go  in 
the  face  of  public  opinion,  which  was  overwhelmingly 
on  Luther's  side.  In  1522  occurred  the  first  Diet  of 
Nuremberg,  the  headquarters  of  the  council.  This 
diet,  despite  the  demand  of  Pope  Adrian  VI.  that  the 
edict  should  be  enforced,  practically  annulled  it.  At 
the  second  Diet  of  Nuremberg  Clement  VII.  made  the 
same  demand  and  got  an  evasive  answer.  The  matter 
was  thus  really  left  in  the  hands  of  the  several  princes. 

c.   Excesses  Among  the  Reformers 

It  always  happens  when  fundamental  changes  are 
taking  place  in  history  that  extreme  and  even  lawless 
elements  get  loose  and  by  their  excesses  embarrass  the 
movement.  It  was  so  in  the  case  of  the  German 
Reformation.  These  excesses  were  religious,  political, 
and  social. 

First  there  were  the  Zwickau  Prophets.  These 
people,  led  by  Claus  Storch  of  Zwickau  (1521),  allowed 
their  religious  zeal  to  consume  them.     They  believed 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  303 

that  a  visible  kingdom  of  God  was  just  about  to  be  set 
up  on  earth.  Its  subjects  were  to  be  guided  by  an  inner 
light  which  should  even  set  aside  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
Each  one  should  in  large  measure  be  a  law  unto  him- 
self. These  prophets  believed  that  the  end  of  the 
world  was  near  at  hand,  and  that  they  should  hasten 
its  coming.  They  accordingly  felt  called  upon  to 
overthrow  existing  institutions.  They  went  to  Witten- 
berg, and  were  soon  followed  by  Thomas  Miinster,  the 
Zwickau  pastor.  They  were  welcomed  by  Carlstadt, 
who  rejected  human  learning,  and  advised  the  students 
to  turn  their  attention  to  manual  labor.  Wittenberg 
soon  became  a  scene  of  anarchy.  Melanchthon  was 
in  perplexity,  and  it  looked  as  if  the  good  work  of  the 
Reformation  were  about  to  be  destroyed.  The  news 
of  this  distressing  condition  reached  Luther  at  the 
Wartburg,  and  despite  the  Elector's  protest,  and  at  the 
risk  of  his  life,  he  returned  to  Wittenberg,  and  after 
several  powerful  sermons  he  restored  order.  He  did 
not  return  to  his  retreat. 

The  political  excesses  were  manifested  in  the 
Knights'  War,  which  occurred  in  1524.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  knights,  or  lesser  German 
nobility,  expected  great  things  from  the  Lutheran 
movement.  Their  position  was  anomalous.  "While 
they  claimed  to  be  independent  of  any  power  except 
the  emperor,  they  were  excluded  from  all  share  in  the 
diets."  Thus  they  fought  on  their  own  lines.  Their 
leaders  were  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  and  Franz  von  Sickin- 
gen.  The  knights  were  soon  defeated,  and  events  led 
to  the  convention  of  Ratisbon  in  1524.  A  league  of 
Catholic  powers  was  formed,  and  Germany  was 
divided  into  two  hostile  camps,  and  we  have  a 
prophecy  of  the   horrors   of  the  Thirty  Years'   War. 


304    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

This  contest  of  the  knights  has  been  called  "a  war  of 
leaders  without  soldiers."  But  "at  the  same  time," 
says  Lodge — History  of  Moder?i  Europe — "the  power  of 
the  Council  of  Regency  and  the  Imperial  Chamber, 
which  depended  upon  German  unity,  was  lessened, 
and  the  constitution  of  these  assemblies  altered.  Thus 
the  central  authority  was  weakened  just  at  a  time  when 
it  was  most  wanted  to  preserve  order." 

The  third  excess  was  mainly  social  in  its  character. 
It  is  known  as  the  Peasants'  War,  and  occurred  in 
1525.  We  have  already  seen  that  of  all  the  classes  in 
Germany  the  most  depressed  and  enslaved  was  that  of 
the  peasants.  So  far  the  peasant  had  made  no  prog- 
ress toward  freedom.  He  was  simply  the  tool  of  his 
heartless  master,  and  there  was  no  legal  or  constitu- 
tional avenue  through  which  he  could  make  an  appeal 
for  justice.  His  only  recourse  was  rebellion,  and  in 
his  rebellion  he  could  only  strike  at  random.  He  had 
expressed  himself  already  in  outbreaks  at  Kempenin 
1492,  at  Elsass  in   1490,  and   in   the   Black   Forest   in 

1513- 

We  have  seen  how  Carlstadt  was  overcome  at  Wit- 
tenberg. That  he  was  altogether  wrong  will  hardly  be 
claimed  by  any  judicial  mind.  There  now  seemed  but 
one  road  left  open  to  him.  It  was  the  way  of  the 
agitator.  He,  with  others,  harangued  the  peasants, 
and  soon  the  spirit  of  rebellion  became  general.  They 
adopted  for  their  standard  the  Bundschue — or  tied  shoe 
— as  contrasted  with  the  buckled  shoe  of  the  nobility. 
There  was  still  a  possiblity  of  avoiding  conflicts  if  the 
nobility  would  use  reason.  But  this  they  would  not 
do.  The  Twelve  Articles  of  the  Peasant  League  in 
southern  Germany  are  so  important  that  justice  to  the 
peasants  demands  that  they  be  given  in  full,  because 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  305 

they  contain  more  history  than  many  pages  of  com- 
mentary.    They  are  as  follows: 

1st.  "The  congregations  are  to  select  their  minis- 
ters." 

2d.  "The  great  tithe  [of  corn]  is  to  be  paid,  but  the 
small  tithes  [of  animals]  are  to  be  abolished." 

3d.  "The  peasants  are  to  be  free,  and  no  longer 
bondsmen." 

4th.  "Game,  fowls  and  fish  are  to  be  free  as  God 
created  them." 

5th.   "Fuel  from  the  woods  to  be  free  to  all." 

6th.  "Compulsory  service  to  be  no  longer  un- 
limited." 

7th.  "All  service  beyond  the  contract  to  be  paid  for 
in  wages." 

8th.  "Rents  to  be  regulated  afresh  in  proportion  to 
the  value  of  the  land." 

9th.    "Arbitrary  punishments   to  be  put  an  end  to." 

lOth.    "Common  pastures  and  fields  to  be  restored." 

nth.   "Heriots  to  be  abolished." 

I2th.  "These  propositions  to  be  tested  by  Scripture, 
and  if  found  contrary  to  that  are  not  to  stand." 

The  peasants  naturally  expected  that  Luther,  being 
the  son  of  a  peasant,  would  take  their  side.  But  the 
situation  for  him  was  very  complicated  and  perplex- 
ing. He  recognized  the  selfishness  and  guilt  of  the 
princes,  and  appealed  to  them  that  they  should  treat 
the  peasants  with  kindness.  But  he  also  warned  the 
peasants  that  the  use  of  physical  force  was  no  part  of 
a  Christian  movement. 

The  princes,  however,  refused  to  recognize  the 
reasonable  demands  of  the  peasants,  and  the  rebellion 
broke  out.  Luther  dreading  a  reign  of  fanaticism  and 
anarchy  wrote  his  tract  Against  the  Murderous  Robber 


306     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Peasa7its.'^  It  was  a  dreadful  war.  Many  of  the  great- 
est monuments  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  destroyed 
especially  in  southern  Germany.  But  in  the  end  the 
peasants  were  put  down,  and  no  mercy  was  shown 
them.  They  were  right  in  most  of  their  demands,  but 
they  gained  little  by  war.  Economical  and  spiritual 
forces  were  moving  toward  their  side.  Their  method 
should  have  been  agitation,  but  not  violence.  They 
were  not  only  pitilessly  slaughtered,  but  their  revolt 
made  the  conservative  princes  still  more  conservative 
and  the  Reformation  was  proportionately  retarded. 

In  1526  the  Treaty  of  Madrid  was  signed  by  Charles 
v.,  and  Francis  I.,  who  since  the  battle  of  Pavia  had 
been  the  prisoner  of  Charles.  Among  other  things  in 
this  treaty  they  agreed  to  unite  in  the  extirpation  of 
heresy.  Had  this  purpose  been  carried  out  the  Refor- 
mation would  have  been  seriously  set  back.  But  the 
selfish  interest  of  both  these  princes  and  of  the  pope 
came  into  conflict,  and  the  calamity  was  averted. 

The  first  Diet  of  Spires  was  held  in  June,  1526.  It 
was  a  recess  in  which  we  have  the  earliest  form  of  the 
later  cujus  regio  ejus  rcligio.  Each  state  was  to  be 
responsible  only  to  God  and  his  Imperial  Majesty. 

d.  Events  Indicating  the  Progress  of  Reform 

These  were: 

I.  Luther's  marriage  to  Catherine  von  Bora — an 
escaped  nun — June  i6th,  1525.  This  at  first  was  made 
the  cause  of  scandal  not  only  among  the  Romanists 
but  among  the  reformers  also.  But  Luther  was  only 
consistent — for  he  had  emphasized  the  duty  of  mar- 
riage. He  did  not  expect  to  live  long,  and,  as  he 
said,  he  wanted  to   "defy  the  devil  before  he  died  by 

*See  Vedder:   Leaflets  No.  4,  for  the  document. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  307 

marriage,  even  though  it  might  be  nothing  more  than 
an  engagement  like  Joseph's."  There  was  not  the 
least  basis  for  the  gossip  that  this  marriage  occasioned. 

2.  Services  in  German  began  to  be  common.  It  was 
a  great  advance  when  the  worshipers  could  hear  the 
service  in  their  own  language,  and  not  in  the  Latin, 
which  most  of  them  could  not  understand. 

3.  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible  was  eagerly 
sought,  and  everywhere  adopted.  He  also  gave  great 
prominence  to  singing.  Many  of  the  old  hymns  were 
translated  into  German.  He  himself  composed  many 
hymns  and  poems.  Among  these  is  the  one  which 
has  been  called  "the  Marseillaise  of  the  Reformation," 
beginning,  ''Ei?i  fcste  Btirg  ist  wiser  Gott,''  based  on  the 
forty-sixth  psalm. 

4.  Great  emphasis  was  put  upon  preaching.  If  the 
preachers  were  without  sufficient  training  they  were 
asked  to  read  printed  sermons  to  the  congregation. 
In  this  way  the  didactic  element  in  worship  pushed 
the  liturgic  element  into  the  background,  where  it 
properly  belonged. 

5.  The  second  Diet  of  Spires  was  held  in  1529.  It 
disregarded  the  action  of  the  first  Diet  of  Spires,  1526, 
and  returned  to  the  Edict  of  Worms.  But  there  was  a 
strong  minority  protest,  and  for  the  first  time  the  name 
"Protestant"  was  given  to  the  Reformers.* 

6.  In  the  same  year  the  Conference  at  Marburg  was 
held,  in  which,  unfortunately,  Luther  and  Zwingli 
were  unable  to  agree  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  But  it  is  especially  interesting  because  inci- 
dentally it  brought  into  existence  the  fifteen  proposi- 
tions which  later  became  the  basis  of  the  Lutheran 
symbolism.     At  Schwabach  the  same  month,  October 

*See  Vedder:  Leaflets  No.  7,  for  the  document. 


308    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

15th,  the  number  of  propositions  increased  to  seven- 
teen, and  the  substance  was  finally  embodied  in  the 
Augsburg  Confession  in  1530. 

By  the  Peace  of  Cambrai  the  differences  between 
Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  are  finally  settled,  the 
Turks,  who  have  been  a  menace  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  empire,  have  been  driven  back,  and  now  Charles 
can  give  his  undivided  attention  to  the  religious  prob- 
lem. 

The  conference  at  Marburg  had  widened  the  breach 
between  the  Reformers.  The  emperor  was  sure  that  if 
he  could  not  persuade  them  to  return  to  the  church  he 
could  compel  them  to  do  so. 

7.  The  Diet  of  Augsburg  met  in  June,  1530,  to  seek 
for  a  basis  of  agreement.  Luther  remained  behind  at 
the  castle  of  Coburg  in  the  territory  of  John — Fred- 
erick the  Wise  having  died  in  1525.  From  this  safe 
retreat  he  managed  the  Protestant  side  of  the  Confer- 
ence. 

There  were  two  principal  results  of  this  diet.  The 
first  was  the  great  Confession  of  Augsburg*  which  has 
been  so  fundamental  in  subsequent  Protestant  creeds. 

The  second  result  was  an  edict  which  forbade  the 
teaching  of  Protestant  doctrines,  and  commanded  all 
men  to  return  to  the  Roman  church. 

All  hope  of  reconciliation  was  now  abandoned — for 
the  Protestants  were  as  determined  as  the  Romanists. 

8.  The  Schmalkald  League.  A  natural  conse- 
quence of  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  the  League  of 
Schmalkald.  This  was  a  league  of  Protestants  for 
mutual  defense,  1531.  War  must  have  followed  at 
once  but  for  the  opportune  reappearance  of  the  Turk. 

*For  the  best  history  of  the  confession  in  English  see  Stucken- 
berg:  History  of  the  Augsburg  Co?ifession.     2d  Ed.,  1897. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  309 

Charles  was  obliged  to  postpone  his  measures  of 
repression  and  come  to  terms  with  the  Protestants  in 
the  Peace  of  Nuremberg.  By  the  terms  of  this  peace 
the  final  settlement  of  the  religious  question  was  to 
be  referred  to  a  future  conference.  The  Protestants 
made  diligent  use  of  this  recess  and  gained  very 
rapidly.  But  these  gains  aroused  the  Romanists  also 
to  greater  activity,  and  they  formed  the  Holy  League 
in  1538. 

A  final  attempt  to  solve  the  religious  problem  was 
made  at  Ratisbon  in  1541.  The  leaders  were 
Melanchthon  for  the  Protestants  and  Contarini  for  the 
Romanists.  Luther  would  not  attend,  because  he  had 
no  confidence  in  any  further  negotiations  with  Rome. 
The  conference  amounted  to  nothing. 

The  Death  of  Ltither 

On  the  i8th  of  February,  1546,  the  great  reformer 
went  to  his  reward.  From  the  beginning  of  his  pro- 
fessorship in  1508  until  his  death  he  had  been  busy 
with  tongue  and  pen.  His  burdens  would  have 
crushed  any  but  a  transcendent  genius.  His  theology 
had  grown  up  bit  by  bit,  as  the  case  demanded,  to 
meet  the  immediate  needs.  In  his  last  days  he  seemed 
to  vacillate  when  he  was  sick  at  heart.  But  this 
despondency  was  only  the  natural  physical  and  mental 
reaction  from  the  tremendous  strain  that  he  had  been 
under  without  relaxation  for  forty  years. 

The  death  of  Luther  spared  him  the  sorrow  of  wit- 
nessing the  horrors  of  the  Schmalkaldic  War;  the  tem- 
porary defection  of  Maurice  of  Saxony;  and  the  defeat 
of  the  Protestants  at  Miihlberg  in  1547,  in  which  John 
Elector  of  Saxony  was  captured  by  the  emperor,  who 
became  complete  master  of  Germany. 


310     A  Short  History   of  the  Christian  Church 

But  fortunately  for  the  Protestants  a  difference  again 
arose  between  Charles  and  the  pope,  Paul  III.  The 
Council  of  Trent  had  convened  in  1545.  Charles 
objected  that  instead  of  dealing  first  with  practical  and 
immediately  urgent  matters,  they  had  concerned  them- 
selves with  doctrinal  aberrations.  Paul,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  alarmed  at  the  growth  of  the  empire  which 
might  easily  encroach  on  his  prerogatives.  He 
ordered  the  Council  of  Trent  transferred  to  Bologna. 
Charles  ordered  it  back.  At  last  the  emperor,  despair- 
ing of  general  councils  as  a  means  of  pacifying  the 
empire,  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1548,  issued  the 
Augsburg  Interim,  according  to  which  the  Protestants 
and  Romanists  were  to  be  mutually  respectful  until  a 
western  council  could  settle  the  questions  that  were 
involved.  This  Interim  was  not  satisfactory  to  either 
side.  The  Protestants  of  northern  Germany  objected 
to  it  as  an  unworthy  concession,  and  it  was  accordingly 
modified  into  the  Leipsic  Interim  which  was  more  con- 
genial to  Protestantism 

The  Peace  of  Aiisbiirg  {1555) 

Events  now  led  up  to  another  diet  at  Augsburg. 
The  result  was  the  famous  Peace  of  Augsburg.  This 
Peace  recognized  the  right  of  each  church  to  exist  in 
Germany,  and  to  have  its  own  creed.  The  point  of 
chief  importance  here  is  that  the  Reformation  now  has 
a  legal  recognition.  The  principle  of  the  peace  is: 
Cujns  regio,  ejus  religio,  which  was  laid  down  at  the  first 
Diet  at  Spires,  1526.  That  is  to  say,  each  prince  is  to 
choose  what  shall  be  the  religion  of  his  dominion. 
But  if  a  prelate  or  spiritual  prince  became  a  Protestant 
he  must  give  up  his  office  and  its  revenues.  More- 
over,   no   form   of  Protestantism   is   to  be  recognized 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  311 

except  the  Lutheran,  and  this  in  face  of  the  fact  that 
the  Zwinglians  and  Calvinists  were  now  the  most 
active  and  aggressive  of  the  Protestant  sects. 
Although  liberty  of  the  individual  conscience  was 
advocated,  it,  for  obvious  reasons,  received  little  favor. 
Protestants  and  Romanists  were  agreed  on  this  point. 
Ferdinand,  who  represented  Charles  at  the  Diet, 
declared  that  he  would  rather  let  the  whole  Peace  fall 
to  the  ground  than  give  his  consent  to  this  clause;  he 
would  rather  "mount  his  horse  and  ride  home,  and 
leave  the  Diet  to  its  own  devices."  The  Peace  of 
Augsburg  gave  the  finishing  stroke  to  the  misconceived 
and  misguided  policy  of  Charles  V.,  whose  abdication 
followed  in  the  autumn  of  1556.  In  several  respects 
the  peace  indicated  that  a  milestone  in  the  struggle  for 
freedom  had  been  reached.  Yet  it  pleased  no  party, 
and  so  was  only  a  recess.  We  see  in  it  a  clear  forecast 
of  the  terrible  Thirty  Years'  War,  which  came  on  early 
in  the  next  century. 

C.    SWITZERLAND 

Contemporaneously  with  the  tremendous  movement 
in  Germany  the  spirit  of  reform  was  also  asserting 
itself  in  Switzerland  only  less  powerfully.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  treat  the  Reformation  in  this  historic  land 
of  freedom  under  the  captions  of  the  Reformation  in 
German  Switzerland,  and  the  Reformation  in  French 
Switzerland.  The  first  has  its  center  at  Zurich,  the 
second  at  Geneva. 

The  Reformatiofi  in  German  Switzerlajid 

The  great  personality  of  this  side  of  the  Swiss 
movement  was  Ulrich  Zwingli,  1484-1531. 


312    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

LITERATURE 

Hug  &  Stead:  History  of  Switzerla?id. 

S trickier:  Acte?i  zitr  Schzueitzerischen  Reformatio?is- 
gescliicJite  in  den  Yahren  i§2i-i§j2.     5  vols. 

Egli:  Aden  Samlung  zur  Geschichte  der  Zuricher 
Refortnation  in  den  Yahren  i^ig-i^jj. 

Herminjard:   Correspondence  des  Reformatenrs.     7  vols. 

Der  Schzveizische  Pius  Verein.  Archiv  fiir  die  Schwei- 
zerischen  Reformationsgeschichte — from  the  Romanist 
point  of  view.     3  vols. 

Schuler:  HuldreicJi  Zzvingli — Geschichte  seiner  Bildimg 
znm  Re  forma  tor  des  Vaterlandes. 

ChristofFel:  HuldreicJi  Zzvingli  s  Lebe?t  tmd  ausgewdhlte 
Schriften. 

Blackburn:   Ulricli  Zzvingli. 

Jackson:  Hulderich  Zzvifigli.  The  latest  and  best  life 
of  Zwingli. 

Jackson:  Selections  from  Zzvingli,  This  recent  and 
important  work  contains  five  of  Zwingli's  works.  Of 
these  the  First  Zurich  Dispiitatioti^  and  The  Refutation  of 
Baptist  Tricks  should  be  especially  mentioned. 

At  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century  Switzerland 
was  nominally  a  part  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  but 
really  it  was  a  confederation  of  independent  cantons. 
It  did  not  think  of  itself  as  in  any  sense  subject  to 
Maximilian.  It  recognized  only  the  Federal  Council 
as  supreme.  Each  canton  was  democratic.  As  a 
result  the  Swiss  surpassed  all  other  Europeans  in 
sturdiness  and  intelligence.  This  fact  made  them 
famous  as  soldiers,  and  they  were  sought  in  nearly  all 
the  European  wars  of  conquest — especially  those 
which  were  waged  against  Italy.     While  this  mercenary 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  313 

activity  brought  a  large  income  to  Switzerland,  it 
reacted  detrimentally  in  the  corruption  of  the  young 
men  who  became  mercenaries. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  Switzerland  would  eagerly 
accept  the  teachings  of  humanism,  but  with  less  dis- 
crimination than  the  more  sober  Germans  farther 
north. 

Thus  politically  and  intellectually  the  people  were 
prepared  for  the  Reformation. 

All  things  were  thus  made  ready  for  the  appearance 
of  a  leader.  Zwingli  was  born  at  Wildhaus  in  the 
present  Canton  of  St,  Gall,  of  humble  but  highly 
respectable  parents.  His  elementary  education  was 
received  at  Basel  and  Bern.  His  teacher  at  Bern  was 
the  distinguished  humanist,  Heinrich  Wolfin.  He 
spent  two  years  with  this  teacher,  and  two  more  years 
at  Vienna  in  classical  study.  He  then  returned  to 
Basel  as  a  teacher  of  Latin  and  a  student  of  philos- 
ophy. His  great  teacher  now  is  Thomas  Wyttenbach, 
who  belonged  to  the  same  school  as  Erasmus.  He 
said:  "The  time  is  at  hand  when  the  ancient  faith 
shall  be  restored  according  to  the  Word  of  God. 
Indulgences  are  a  Roman  snare  and  a  delusion." 
Zwingli  was  deeply  moved  by  the  lectures  which 
elaborated  the  thoughts  contained  in  these  sentences. 
He  soon  found  himself  in  perfect  accord  with  the 
methods  of  the  humanists.  He  sought  the  original 
sources  for  all  truth.  This  led  him  back  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, by  which  later  religious  development  must  be 
tested. 

Many  experiences  led  him  to  doubt  the  authority  of 
the  Roman  church.  Once  he  found  an  old  copy  of  the 
mass  book,  and  to  his  surprise  he  found  that  it  was 
then  customary  to  give  both  bread   and  wine  to  the 


314    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

communicants  instead  of  bread  alone.  This  raised 
the  question:  "Can  the  church  which  claims  to  be 
unchangeable  and  yet  makes  such  alterations  in  its 
liturgy  possess  the  fundamental  element  of  truth?" 

Once,  when  he  was  reproved  for  refusing  to  say 
mass,  he  said:  "Either  the  host  is  my  God  or  it  is  not. 
If  it  is  my  God  I  am  unworthy  to  look  upon  Him, 
much  less  to  touch  Him.  If  it  is  not  my  God  I  will 
not  lend  myself  to  the  dissemination  of  error." 

That  Zwingli's  development  was  in  the  main  inde- 
pendent of  Luther's  is  generally  admitted,  but  that  he 
was  influenced  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  Saxon 
reformers  must  be  granted.  But  by  environment  and 
by  nature  he  was  very  different.  He  had  no  such  deep 
and  searching  personal  experience  as  Luther.  He  did 
not  start  from  the  religious  needs  of  the  people,  so 
much  as  from  the  more  purely  intellectual  side,  from 
knowledge  colored  by  his  humanistic  culture.  The 
Zwinglians  had  a  decided  distaste  for  mysticism,  and 
in  their  desire  to  simplify  the  outward  forms  of  wor- 
ship, they  banished  all  images  from  the  church  and 
left  only  the  Word.* 

Zwingli  became  pastor  at  Glarus  in  1506.  Here  for 
several  years  he  devoted  himself  to  the  classics — and 
developed  still  further  that  fondness  for  the  Greek  and 
Roman  philosophers  which  gave  a  tone  to  all  his  later 
work.  He  went  on  an  Italian  campaign  as  chaplain 
in  15 1 5.  Here  he  got  many  unfavorable  impressions 
of  the  papal  system.  In  15 16  he  was  transferred  to 
Einsiedeln.  The  black  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  was  here,  and 
attracted  many  pilgrims.  It  was  here,  too,  that  his 
opposition   to   indulgences   which    had   been    long    in 

*Sohm.  pp.,  176. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  315 

preparation  took  definite  form.  Through  his  preach- 
ing the  Canton  of  Zurich  refused  admission  to  Samson, 
the  papal  emissary.  But  this  opposition  did  not 
amount  to  a  collision  with  the  papacy.  He  is  not  yet 
a  full-fledged  reformer. 

His  first  real  conflict  with  the  papacy  took  place  in 
1521,  when  the  pope,  Leo  X.,  demanded  Swiss  troops 
to  march  against  the  French.  He  resisted  this 
demand,  but  was  not  successful. 

He  expressed  himself  on  the  subject  of  mercenary 
warfare  as  follows:  "Those  who  risk  their  life  in  battle 
for  truth,  religion,  righteousness  and  country  are 
faithful  and  godly  men.  But,  as  for  those  mercenary 
and  bloodthirsty  soldiers  who  march  to  battle  for 
filthy  lucre's  sake,  I  believe  that  there  is  nothing  on 
earth  more  godless  and  criminal  than  their  conduct, 
and  that  such  soldiers  deserve  the  name  of  free- 
booters and  not  of  Christians." 

But  he  was  soon  aroused  to  attack  the  papacy,  fast- 
ing, clerical  celibacy.  He  urged  the  futility  of  all 
human  institutions,  and  taught  that  the  Scriptures 
alone  were  the  source  of  authority.  His  teaching 
spread  and  caused  a  general  ferment.  The  result  was 
a  formal  charge  against  him  and  his  followers  by  the 
bishop  of  Constance  in  1522.  An  appeal  was  made  to 
the  people  of  Zurich  to  silence  him.  The  outcome 
was  Zwingli's  Sixty-Seveji  Theses,  or  Articles.  These 
theses  maintained:  The  absolute  supremacy  of  Christ; 
the  sufficiency  of  a  direct  approach  to  Christ;  the 
rejection  of  the  mass  as  a  continuation  of  the  sacrifice 
of  Christ,  who  died  once  for  all.  Moreover,  they 
denounced  hypocrisy.  "Nothing,"  says  he,  "is  more 
displeasing  to  God  than  hypocrisy.  It  follows,  there- 
fore,  that  everything  which    assumes  sanctity  in   the 


316     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

sight  of  man  is  folly.  This  condemns  cowls,  symbols, 
vestments,  and  tonsures." 

Opposition  steadily  arose.  He  was  accused  of 
heresy,  and  at  last  at  his  own  request  a  disputation  was 
held,  not  in  Latin,  but  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  In  this 
disputation,  and  in  the  presence  of  six  hundred  per- 
sons representing  the  Council,  the  clergy,  and  the 
burghers,  and  three  representatives  of  the  bishop  of 
Constance,  Zwingli  defended  himself  from  the  Greek, 
Latin  and  Hebrew  Scriptures.  His  sixty-seven  theses, 
he  claimed,  contained  his  doctrine  reduced  to  propo- 
sitions. The  replies  to  him  were  evasive.  After  an 
adjournment  the  people  reassembled  and  the  burgo- 
master rendered  the  decision  of  the  Council  as  follows: 
"Since  no  one  has  been  able  to  convict  Master  Ulrich 
Zwingli  of  error,  we,  the  Burgomaster  and  the  Lesser 
and  Greater  Councils  of  Zurich,  after  mutual  delibera- 
tion, have  determined  that  Master  Ulrich  Zwingli  shall 
continue  to  preach  the  genuine  divine  Scriptures 
according  to  the  Spirit  of  God  to  the  best  of  his 
ability.  We  also  command  all  other  priests,  pastors, 
and  preachers  to  preach  nothing  else  in  public  except 
what  can  be  proved  from  the  Holy  Gospel  and  the 
canonical  Scriptures." 

In  1525  the  canton  threw  off  the  authority  of  the 
Bishop.  In  this  same  year  Zwingli  published  his 
great  work.  Commentary  on  Trne  and  False  Religion.  It 
was  a  systematic  statement  of  the  ideas  that  had  been 
growing  in  his  mind  from  the  earliest  days  of  his  stu- 
dent life.  From  the  outline  of  his  theses  it  will  be 
seen  that  logically  he  would  advance  far  beyond 
Luther.  The  idea  of  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  God 
was  fundamental  with  him.  It  was  carried  to  the 
extent  of  subordinating  to  the  last  degree  all  external 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  317 

means  of  grace.  These  reforms  were  substantially- 
carried  out  in  the  church  at  Zurich. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  understand  how  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Switzerland  would  differ  from  that  in  Germany 
in  several  important  points.  In  the  first  place  Luther 
did  not  entirely  come  out  of  Romanism,  while  Zwingli 
was  at  some  points  extreme  in  his  rev^olt.  This  is 
seen  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Luther 
held  to  a  real  presence  still.  Zwingli  regarded  the 
Supper  as  only  a  memorial  of  the  Lord.  Remember- 
ing then  the  intensity  of  conviction  that  prevailed  at 
the  time  we  could  not  expect  the  conference  at  Mar- 
burg to  have  had  a  different  ending. 

In  the  second  place  we  have  noted  the  difference  in 
the  political  organization  of  the  two  countries.  The 
existence  of  temporal  princes  in  Germany  caused 
Lutheranism,  despite  any  preferences  it  may  have 
had  to  the  contrary,  to  strengthen  these  princes. 

But  the  absence  of  temporal  princes  in  Switzerland 
as  naturally  placed  the  settlement  of  church  matters 
in  the  hands  of  the  congregation. 

Practically  Zwingli  believed  in  a  theocracy.  In  his 
attempt  to  reorganize  the  federal  constitution  so  as  to 
secure  equality  of  votes  he  aroused  the  four  forest 
cantons — Uri,  Schweitz,  Unterwalden  and  Lucerne. 
Their  political  interest  caused  them  to  adhere  to 
Romanism.  This  caused  a  war  in  1529  in  which  the 
four  cantons  were  defeated.  By  the  first  Peace  of 
Cappel  the  expenses  of  the  war  were  paid  by  them, 
and  the  form  of  religion  was  determined  by  the 
majority  of  the  congregations.  In  1531  the  war  was 
renewed,  Zurich  was  defeated,  and  Zwingli,  whose 
duties  as  chaplain  required  him  to  be  present,  was 
slain.     "The  second  Peace  of  Cappel  so  far  confirmed 


318     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

the  previous  treaty  that  it  allowed  each  canton  to 
settle  its  own  religious  affairs  without  external  inter- 
ference. Thus  in  Switzerland  as  in  Germany  the 
Reformation  produced  religious  disunion  ..." 
(Lodge:  Modern  Europe). 

The  Reformation  extended  from  Zurich  to  other 
important  cantons  in  Switzerland.  Basle  has  been 
called  "the  most  enlightened  spot  in  Switzerland." 
And  so  while  Zwingli  was  doing  his  work  at  Zurich, 
and  among  the  cantons,  the  movement  was  going 
ahead  at  Basle — chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Oeco- 
lampadius. 

Zwingli's  work  was  continued  by  Henry  Bullinger. 
He  was  born  in  1504,  educated  at  Emmerich  in  the 
school  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life;  studied 
theology  at  Cologne;  passed  from  scholasticism  to  the 
earlier  Fathers;  then  through  the  writings  of  Luther 
and  Melanchthon  to  the  Bible.  He  earnestly  sought 
to  carry  out  Zwingli's  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.  He 
developed  it  in  a  direction  which  made  a  union  with 
Calvin's  doctrine  possible.      (Moeller:  Reformation.) 

The  Reformation  i?i  French  Switzerland 

The  tyranny  and  corruption  and  doctrinal  errors  of 
the  papacy  had  brought  forth  the  same  fruits  in  France 
as  in  the  rest  of  Christendom,  and  from  far  back  in  the 
Middle  Ages  the  spirit  of  resistance  had  manifested 
itself.  This  had  been  especially  true  in  southern 
France.  The  new  learning  had  made  its  way  into  the 
French  court,  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by 
Francis  L  The  town  of  Meaux,  about  twenty-five 
miles  east  of  Paris,  had  become  a  center  of  reformatory 
forces,  and  for  a  time  it  looked  as  if  it  might  rival 
Wittenberg.       Lefevre    announced     the    doctrine    of 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  319 

Justification  by  Faith  five  years  before  Luther,  but 
French  society  was  not  ready  for  its  reception.  As 
the  German  Reformation  developed,  its  influence 
reached  France  and  aroused  the  hierarchy.  The  result 
was  that  the  center  at  Meaux  was  broken  up.  Many 
of  the  leaders  either  went  back  to  Romanism  or 
remained  lukewarm.  Lefevre  did  not  have  the 
courage  of  his  convictions.  But  before  he  was 
silenced  he  did  a  great  work, — and  Meaux  gave  Wil- 
liam Farel  to  the  world,  and  Farel  proved  to  be  the 
link  which  in  the  providence  of  God  connected  John 
Calvin  to  Geneva  and  the  Reformation.  And  so  when 
Zwingli  came  to  his  untimely  end  in  1531  his  work,  so 
well  begun,  was  to  be  taken  up,  largely  reinforced,  and 
carried  on  to  marvelous  proportions.  As  "Lutheran- 
ism"  spread  through  France,  and  "infected"  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  the  opposition  of  the  hierarchy 
became  decisive.  Francis  L,  after  wavering,  went 
over  to  the  side  of  Romanism,  and  French  Protestants 
were  no  longer  safe  within  the  borders  of  France. 
Farel  and  Calvin,  with  others,  became  refugees  until 
they  found  a  permanent  abiding  place  in  Geneva. 

The  government  of  Geneva  at  this  time  was  three- 
fold, being  divided  between  the  bishop,  the  duke  of 
Saxony,  and  the  independent  burghers  who  were  sup- 
ported by  the  Swiss  Confederation.  After  a  conflict 
of  ten  years  the  burghers  overcame  the  combined  oppo- 
sition of  the  duke  and  the  bishop.  In  1536,  the  date 
of  Calvin's  arrival  in  Geneva,  the  city  had  become 
independent,  having  but  little  connection  with  the 
Swiss  Confederation. 

a.    The  Beginnings  of  the  Reformation  at  Geneva 
William   Farel   (1489-1565)   has  been  very  properly 


320     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

called  the  "Elijah  of  the  French  Reformation."  After 
leaving  Meaux  he  was  to  be  further  prepared  for  his 
work  by  his  sojourn  at  Basle,  where  he  converted  Pel- 
lican  the  Franciscan,  reproved  Erasmus  for  his  timidity, 
and  whence  he  was  banished.  He  then  went  to  Stras- 
burg,  where  he  met  Bucer  and  Capito, — and  then  to 
Neufchatel,  which  he  won  for  the  Reformation.  He 
reached  Geneva  in  1532.  Already  the  doctrines  of 
Zwingli  had  reached  Geneva  through  the  influence  of 
Berne. 

Humanism  had  also  permeated  the  town,  and  along 
with  its  learning  had  come  its  pagan  grossness.  Thus 
directly  and  indirectly  the  way  had  been  prepared  for 
the  advent  of  the  fiery  and  persistent  reformer. 

There  was  probably  no  city  in  Europe  that  had  sunk 
lower  in  immorality  than  Geneva.  The  bishops  and 
the  nobility  led  the  way.  The  lower  clergy  fell  into 
line,  and  the  burghers  were  by  no  means  innocent. 
The  skeptical,  licentious,  and  superstitious  city  was 
naturally  enough  always  a  good  market  for  indul- 
gences. 

This  was  the  condition  of  things  that  Farel  had  to 
meet.  He  could  not  proceed  very  far  without  giving 
offence  on  all  sides.  But  Farel  was  not  afraid.  He 
preached  violently  against  the  Roman  antichrist,  and 
soon  stirred  up  a  determined  opposition. 

In  1533  Farel  conducted  a  disputation.  This  dis- 
putation was  followed  by  acts  of  violence  by  those  who 
were  on  his  side,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  Council  on 
the  27th  day  of  August,  1535,  Romanism  was  abolished 
and  Protestantism  was  made  the  religion  of  the  city. 
But  a  compulsory  religion  can  never  reform  the 
morals  of  a  community,  even  though  it  be  Protestant- 
ism.    The  lives  of  the  people  did  not  greatly  improve. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  321 

ructive  part  of  the  work  had  been  successfully 
shed  by  Farel  and  his  followers.     But  for  the 
jxq  difficult  work  of  construction  Geneva  waited 
suspense. 

It  was  just  at  this  critical  moment  that  John  Calvin 
(1509-1565),  on  his  way  from  Italy  to  Basle,  stopped 
over  night  at  Geneva — was  discovered  by  Farel  and 
compelled  to  remain. 

LITERATURE 

Doumergue:  Jea?i  Calvin.  This  great  work  is  to  be 
completed  in  five  large  and  sumptuous  volumes.  The 
first  volume  has  already  appeared  (1901).  Its  excel- 
lence assures  us  that  the  entire  work  will  surpass  all 
previous  lives  of  Calvin. 

Bungener:  Calviii,  His  Life,  His  Labors,  and  His 
Writings. 

Dyer:  Life  of  Calvin. 

ll^nxY'.  Life  of  Calvi?i.     2  vols.     Favorable. 

Audin:  History  of  the  Life,  the  Works,  and  the  Doctrines 
of  Calvin.     2  vols.     Unfavorable. 

Beza:  History  of  the  Life  and  the  Death  of  John  Calvin. 

Kuyper :  Lectures  on  Calvhiism. 

Willis:  Servetiis  a?id  Calvin. 

Wright:  A?i  Apology  for  Michael  Servetiis. 

SchafF:  History  of  Christiaji  Chnrch.  Vol.  7.  Defence 
of  Calvin  in  the  Servetus  affair. 

The  works  of  Calvin  are  translated   in   52  volumes. 

John  Calvin  was  born  at  Noyon  in  Picardy.  He  was 
first  educated  for  the  priesthood  at  Paris,  and  after- 
wards for  the  law  at  Orleans  and  Bourges.  At 
Bourges  he  met  Wolmar,  who  was  the  professor  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew.  Wolmar  had  been  a  pupil  of 
Lefevre.     The  exact  influence  that  he  had  upon  Calvin 


322    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

is  unknown,  but  it  seems  certain  that  he  called  his 
attention  to  the  Greek  New  Testament.  In  some  way 
he  learned  the  doctrines  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon, 
and  was  moved  by  them  to  make  an  independent 
investigation  of  all  the  claims  of  the  Roman  church. 
Calvin  was  a  typical  Frenchman  in  his  orderly  mind  so 
logically  exact  and  rigid.  When  he  began  to  express 
his  new  views  there  could  be  no  question  as  to  where 
he  stood.  Consequently  he  was  involved  in  the  perse- 
cutions of  1534,  and  driven  from  France.  But  he  con- 
tinued his  studies  in  Italy  and  Germany. 

When  he  was  converted  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute. 
The  two  views  that  command  attention  are  taken 
respectively  by  Lange  and  Doumergue. 

A  mind  constituted  and  trained  as  Calvin's  was 
would  naturally  seek  a  systematic  expression  of  what 
it  conceived  to  be  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation.  And  so  we  have  his  histittites  of  the  Chris- 
tian  Religion,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared  in 
1536,  dedicated  to  Francis  I. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  he  said,  were  only 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity.  He  meant 
the  Instittites  as  an  introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  and 
as  a  vindication  of  the  Reformation.  It  was  based 
upon  the  Apostles'  Creed:  'T  believe  in  God  the  Father, 
and  in  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  (in  a  latter  edition)  in  the  Holy  Catholic  Church." 
The  Institutes,  accordingly,  consists  of  four  parts:  God 
the  Father;  God  the  Son;  God  the  Holy  Ghost;  and 
the   Catholic  Church. 

The  core  of  Calvin's  theological  system  is  found  in 
his  doctrine  of  God.  To  him  God  is  the  essence  of 
all  perfection.  The  universe  and  all  its  creatures  are 
absolutely  dependent  upon   Him.     In  the  hands  of  a 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  323 

remorseless  logician  like  Calvin  the  consequences 
would  seem  to  lead  directly  to  universal  fatalism. 
The  distinguishing  features  of  Calvinism  are,  there- 
fore, the  "divine  decree,  predestination,  election,  total 
depravity,  irresistible  grace,  and  everlasting  perse- 
verance of  the  elect"  (Zenos,  p.  216).  He  took  a 
mediating  position  between  Luther  and  Zwingli  on 
the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  Institutes  is  probably  the  greatest  treatise  on  sys- 
tematic theology  that  has  ever  appeared.  It  was 
great  not  only  as  a  contribution  to  theology,  but  it  was 
epoch-making  in  the  growth  of  the  French  language 
and  literature. 

The  histittites,  as  we  have  observed,  appeared  in  1536, 
the  same  year  in  which  he  entered  upon  his  career  as  a 
reformer.  In  this  respect  Calvin  differed  from 
Luther.  He  had  his  theological  system  to  start  with — 
and  all  the  subsequent  editions  of  the  Institutes  con- 
tained nothing  more  than  elaborations  and  modifica- 
tions of  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  first  edition. 
Luther,  on  the  other  hand,  made  his  theology  as 
occasion  called  for  it. 

b.    Calvin  at  Geneva 

Farel  had  begun  the  work  of  reformation  at  Geneva, 
but  he  could  not  carry  it  through  to  a  successful  issue. 
This  was  perfectly  clear  in  his  own  mind,  and  when  he 
found  Calvin  in  Geneva  he  rightly  took  it  as  a  leading 
of  Providence.  Calvin  had  the  requisite  qualifica- 
tions for  such  a  work.  They  were  sincerity,  an  orderly 
mind  which  had  been  trained  in  the  law,  the  gift  of 
expression,  and  great  persistency.  But  there  were 
some  serious  drawbacks.  One  was  his  natural  timidity, 
which  when  overcome  was  sure  to  go  to  the  opposite 


324     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

extreme.  Another  was  that  his  humanism  was  defect- 
ive— so  much  so  that  some  have  claimed  that  he  was 
not  a  humanist  at  all.  The  truer  view  probably  is  that 
he  appropriated  only  the  stoical  elements  of  human- 
ism. 

He  at  once  became  the  source  of  authority  in 
Geneva,  and  his  doctrines  were  vigorously  applied. 
Soon  the  city  noted  for  its  dissoluteness  became  the 
most  orderly  city  in  Europe.  But  this  reformation 
was  too  summary.  A  general  spirit  of  revolt 
expressed  itself  in  the  banishment  of  the  two  reform- 
ers in  the  spring  of  1538.  Then  the  city  fell  back  into 
its  old  customs — and  the  people  after  three  years  were 
glad  to  recall  Calvin  and  Farel,  and  submit  to  their 
leadership.  For  twenty-four  years,  then,  Geneva  was 
ruled  according  to  the  Ecclesiastical  Ordinatices.  The 
preface  indicates  the  general  character  of  these  ordi- 
nances: "The  spiritual  regimen,  which  God  has 
ordained  in  His  church,  reduced  to  a  proper  form,  to 
be  observed  and  have  place  in  the  city  of  Geneva." 

God  has  established  four  orders  of  officers  for  the 
church.     They  are: 

1st.  The  Pastors,  or  overseers  or  bishops.  It  is 
their  duty  to  explain  the  word,  dispense  the  sacra- 
ments, and,  in  co-operation  with  the  elders,  to  exercise 
discipline.  The  pastors  were  elected  by  the  ministers, 
appointed  by  the  magistrates  with  the  approval  of  the 
people,  and  accountable  to  the  consistory,  and  the 
city  council. 

2d.  The  Teachers.  These  were  the  professors  in  the 
University,  and  the  teachers  in  the  lower  schools. 

3d.  The  Elders.  It  was  their  duty  to  exercise  dis- 
cipline. They  must  be  members  of  the  council  of  the 
city,  by  which  they  were  appointed  with  the  advice  of 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  325 

the  pastors.  "In  conjunction  with  the  pastors  they 
made  a  yearly  visitation  of  their  districts  and  tested  in 
some  simple  way  the  faith  and  conduct  of  every  mem- 
ber of  the  church"  (Lindsay). 

In  the  consistory  were  combined  the  legislative  and 
executive  functions  of  the  church.  This  court  con- 
sisted of  six  city  clergy,  and  twelve  deputies  of  the 
council,  or  the  elders. 

4th.  The  Deacons.  The  deacons  were  appointed  by 
the  city  council.  It  was  their  duty  to  care  for  the 
poor  and  the  sick. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  the  Institutes  Calvin 
expressed  himself  unequivocally  against  the  organic 
union  of  church  and  state.  But  in  the  Ecclesiastical 
Ordinances  there  is  a  complete  blending  of  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical.  This  appears  to  show  that  Calvin 
was  not  all-powerful  in  the  drafting  of  these  Ordi- 
nances, but  rather  that  he  was  forced  into  a  compro- 
mise. This  fact  should  not  be  forgotten  in  making  the 
final  estimate  of  the  Genevan  reformer. 

Although  Calvin's  ideas  were  for  the  most  part 
carried  out  to  the  letter,  it  was  only  in  the  face  of  bit- 
ter opposition  from  a  politico-religious  party  known  as 
the  Libertijies.  Many  of  the  natives  objected  to  the 
growing  influence  of  Frenchmen  in  the  affairs  of  the 
city.  There  were  also  many  religious  extremists  who 
denied  the  personality  of  God,  and  advocated  free 
love.  Against  all  these  disturbers  of  the  peace  the 
consistory  proceeded  without  compunction.  "Within 
the  space  of  five  years  58  death  sentences,  and  76 
banishments  were  carried  out  amongst  the  inhabitants 
of  Geneva  numbering  20,000"  (Moeller). 

The  execution  of  Servetus,  October  23,  1553,  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  all  the  world,  and  despite  all 


326     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

palliating  circumstances  remains   the  darkest  page  in 
the  history  of  the  Genevan  Reformation. 

c.  Cahmi  and  the  Szviss  Reforination 
As  soon  as  matters  were  sufficiently  secure  at  Geneva 
Calvin  sought  to  extend  his  influence  throughout 
Switzerland.  He  appreciated  what  Zwingli  had  done, 
and  desired  that  there  might  be  a  union  of  all  the 
Swiss  reformatory  forces.  But  at  first  the  Zwinglians 
were  suspicious  of  him.  They  thought  that  he  and 
Farel  were  "Lutherans."  But  Bullinger  and  Calvin 
were  able  to  compromise,  and  the  outcome  is  the 
Co?isc7isus  Tig7iri?ius,  1549.  From  this  union  the 
Reformed  Church  comes  into  existence. 

d.  Theodore  Beza  {i jig- 160 f^"^ 
When  Calvin  died  in  1564  his  work  did  not  lag  for 
want  of  a  worthy  successor.  Theodore  Beza  had  been 
his  friend  and  fellow  worker.  He  was  an  accom- 
plished classical  scholar,  and  by  nature  as  well  as 
training  he  was  in  full  sympathy  with  the  Calvinistic 
theology.  Under  his  administration  the  Academy 
became  famous,  and  students  came  from  all  western 
Europe.  Among  these  students  was  Arminius,  who 
was  to  lead  the  great  revolt  against  Calvinism  in  the 
Netherlands.  Beza  was  a  prominent  figure  in  the 
French  Reformation,  and  has  been  called  "in  some 
sense  the  bishop  of  the  Huguenots." 

D.    ENGLAND 
LITERATURE 

Ransome:  History  of  England.     Advanced. 
Gardiner:  History  of  England. 
*See  Baird:    Theodore  Beza. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  327 

Terry:  A  History  of  England,  new  and  excellent. 

Burnet:  History   of  the   Reformation  of  the   Church  of 
E^igland.     Pocock's  ed. 

Gee  and  Hardy:  Documents  Illustrative  of  English 
Cctirch  History. 

Kendall:  Source  Book  of  English  History. 

Beckett:   The  English  Reformation. 

Geikie:   The  English  Reformation. 

Clark :   TJie  English  Reformation. 

Perry,  G.  G. :   Tlie  Reformation  in  E?igland. 

Blunt:  The  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England ;  Its 
History,  Prijiciples  and  Results. 

Neal:  History  of  the  Purita?is. 

Campbell:  The  Puritan  in  Holla?id,  E?igla?id  a?id  Amer- 
ica. 2  vols.  Puts  great  emphasis  on  the  contribution 
of  Holland  to  growth  of  America.  Has  been  vigor- 
ously opposed,  as,  for  example,  by  Doyle  in  Political 
Science  Quarterly. 

The  spiritual  condition  of  England,  in  its  great  lead- 
ing features,  was  much  the  same  as  it  had  been  on  the 
Continent.  There  was  the  same  suffering  and  discon- 
tent among  the  people,  and  there  were  numerous 
expressions  of  dissatisfaction. 

The  Reformation  in  England  began  early,  passed 
through  several  distinct  stages,  and  at  last  differed  in 
several  important  particulars  from  the  Reformation  on 
the  Continent.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland  rival  sys- 
tems were  set  up  in  more  or  less  complete  opposition 
to  the  hierarchy.  In  England  the  movement  was  less 
radical.  The  work  was  undertaken  by  sovereigns  and 
clergy,  and  the  historical  connection  with  Rome  was 
not  so  completely  broken. 

We  have  seen  the  Wiclif  movement,  which  arose  in 
the  fourteenth  century.      Wiclif  had  important  fore- 


328    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

runners.  His  influence  continued  in  his  translation  of 
the  Bible,  which  had  been  almost  entirely  committed 
to  memory  by  many  of  the  people;  and  in  the  Lol- 
lards, whose  conventicles  had  perpetuated  his  ideas 
right  up  to  the  time  of  the  great  revolt. 

T/ie  Oxford  Reformers 
LITERATURE 

Seebohm:  The  Oxford  Reformers — Colet,  Erasmus,  a?id 
More. 

The  next  stage  is  led  by  a  group  of  great  men  who 
are  known  as  the  Oxford  Reformers — Colet  and  More 
the  Englishmen,  and  Erasmus  the  cosmopolitan. 

The  fame  of  Italian  humanism  had  reached  England, 
and  Oxford  students  were  finding  their  way  to  Italy, 
and  especially  to  Florence  in  the  time  of  Lorenzo  de 
Medici.  Among  these  were  Grocyn  and  Linacre. 
The  new  enthusiasm  aroused  within  them  was  carried 
to  England.  The  result  was  to  revive  the  study  of  the 
Greek  language  at  Oxford,  and  to  spread  the  new 
learning  in  England. 

But  of  deeper  spiritual  significance  was  John  Colet's 
visit  to  Italy.  This  visit  was  after  Lorenzo's  death, 
when  Alexander  VI.  was  at  the  height  of  his  infamy, 
and  Savonarola  was  the  ruling  force  in  the  Florentine 
Republic.  Whether  Colet  was  at  Florence  is  uncer- 
tain, but  that  he  stood  in  full  view  of  all  that  was 
going  on  is  beyond  question.  He  not  only  appre- 
ciated the  revival  of  learning,  and  utilized  it  to  the 
full,  but  he  was  impressed  as  never  before  with  the 
need  of  religious  reform. 

He  returned  to  Oxford.  In  1496  he  announced  a 
course  of  lectures  on  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  He  was 
saturated  with  the  new  learning,  and  the  new  criticism. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  329 

and  in  these  lectures  he  sought  in  a  direct  and  com- 
mon-sense way  to  find  out  just  what  Paul  meant.  The 
burdens  of  scholasticism,  with  their  intricacies  and 
vagaries  had  become  so  great  that  the  mastery  of  them 
left  no  time  or  strength  for  the  study  of  the  Bible. 
All  these  hindrances  were  brushed  away,  and  Colet's 
advice  to  his  students  was  to  "keep  to  the  Bible  and 
the  Apostles'  Creed,  letting  divines,  if  they  like,  dis- 
pute about  the  rest." 

Colet  saw  that  it  "was  ecclesiastical  scandals  and 
the  wicked  worldly  living  of  the  clergy,  the  way  they 
mixed  themselves  up  with  politics,  and  strove  after 
power  and  money  and  pleasure,  which  set  men  against 
the  church."  He  was  thus  led  to  become  a  practical 
reformer. 

Erasmus,  already  famous  for  his  learning,  came  to 
Oxford  in  1498.  He  was  welcomed  by  the  little  band 
of  scholars.  He  said  that  he  had  come  to  learn.  At 
first  he  defended  the  scholastics,  but  he  was  soon  con- 
vinced by  Colet,  who  exercised  a  moulding  influence 
upon  him. 

The  Tudors 
LITERATURE 

Child :  Church  and  State  under  the  Tudors. 

The  three  great  Oxford  Reformers  lived  on  into  the 
reign  of  Henry  VHL,  and  much  of  their  maturest 
work  was  done  in  that  reign.  Colet's  celebrated 
school  of  St.  Paul's  was  founded  in  1510,  Erasmus' 
Novum  I?istrume7itum  appeared  in  15 16,  and  More's 
EtUopia  was  published  in  15 15. 

But  the  time  had  come  when  for  weal  and  for  woe 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation  was  to  be  directed  by 
kings  and  queens. 


330     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

a.   Hcjiiy  VIII.   {i^og-1^4'/) 

The  Tudors  came  in  with  Henry  VII.  (1485-1509),  in 
whom  the  houses  of  Lancaster  and  York  were  united. 
In  him  we  have  the  beginning  of  the  almost  absolute 
power  that  characterized  the  Tudors.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1509  by  his  son  Henry.  The  earlier  part  of 
Henry  VIII. 's  reign  gave  high  hopes,  and  he  won 
great  popularity  with  the  people,  which  he  maintained 
until  his  death.  But  he  was  cruel  in  disposition  and 
variable  in  temperament.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign  these  qualities  controlled  him,  and  he  became  a 
remorseless  and  wicked  tyrant,  and  a  murderer  of  large 
dimensions.  Henry's  early  relations  with  the  pope 
were  harmonious.  The  Lutheran  doctrines  found  their 
way  into  England,  and  in  1521  he  sent  his  famous 
"Assertion  of  the  Seven  Sacraments,"  which  was  a 
refutation  of  "Martin  Luther  the  Heresiarch,"  to 
Rome,  With  "infinite  thankfulness"  the  pope  con- 
ferred upon  Henry  the  title  of  "Defender  of  the 
Faith." 

But  these  pleasant  relations  were  to  continue  only 
until  the  pope  should  oppose  the  king's  desires.  Such 
a  difference  arose  in  1527,  when  Henry  took  his  first 
steps  to  secure  a  divorce  from  his  first  wife,  Catherine 
of  Aragon.  On  the  part  of  the  pope,  Paul  III.,  a  bull 
of  excommunication  and  deposition  against  the  king 
was  published  in  1538.  This  bull  availed  nothing  but 
the  ruin  of  Pole's  house  when  he  attempted  to  carry  it 
out.  On  Henry's  part  we  have  the  great  Reformation 
Parliament,  which  lasted  from  1529  to  1536.  The 
principal  acts  of  this  parliament  are:  A  general  cur- 
tailment of  ecclesiastical  courts;  prohibition  of  the 
payment  of  A?t?iates ;  prohibition  of  appeals  to  Rome; 
the  denial  of  the  pope's   authority  in  the  appointment 


•      The  Period  of  the  Reformation  331 

of  bishops;  the  crowning  act  in  1534,  known  as  the 
Act  of  Supremacy,  which  made  the  king  the  only 
Supreme  Head  on  earth  of  the  Church  of  England; 
the  act  defining  treason  which  should  consist  in  ques- 
tioning the  Act  of  Supremacy. 

Another  enactment  of  this  parliament  in  the  last 
year  of  its  session  was  the  act  for  the  suppression  of  the 
smaller  monasteries.  It  was  carried  into  effect  with 
great  shamelessness.  Three  years  later  the  larger  ones 
suffered  a  like  fate.  Thus  there  was  a  transfer  of  their 
enormous  wealth  into  the  king's  treasury,  to  religious 
uses,  and  to  Henry's  ministers  and  friends.  Of  course 
those  who  profited  by  this  spoliation  became  staunch 
advocates  of  the  Reformation.  We  are  told  that  many 
of  the  great  English  families  date  their  worldly  pros- 
perity from  this  time.  The  monasteries  had  no  doubt 
departed  to  a  large  extent  from  their  original  \'ows, 
but  that  they  were  in  a  large  measure  the  victims  of 
slanderous  reports  seems  certain. 

That  the  enactments  of  Henry's  parliament  should 
go  into  effect  without  serious  opposition  was  not  to  be 
expected.  Among  those  who  suffered  under  the  Act 
of  Supremacy,  Sir  Thomas  More  and  Bishop  Fisher 
should  be  especially  mentioned. 

But  the  most  serious  opposition  was  the  movement 
known  as  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  led  by  Robert  Aske 
of  Yorkshire.  Their  demands  were  expressed  in 
twenty-four  articles.  Among  these  were:  "The 
suppression  of  the  heresies  of  Wiclif,  Hus,  Luther, 
Melanchthon,  and  the  destruction  of  the  works  of 
Tyndale  and  others";  the  repeal  of  the  Act  of 
Supremacy;  the  restoration  of  the  suppressed  monas- 
teries; that  Cromwell  and  the  Lord  Chancellor  should 
suffer  "as  perverters  of  the  good   laws  of  this  realm 


332    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  maintainers  of  the  false  acts  of  these  heretics." 
The  uprising  had  to  be  put  down  with  great  severity. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  Act  of  Supremacy  the 
dominion  of  the  papacy  in  England  was  destroyed, 
and  with  this  destruction  came  numerous  expressions 
of  the  spirit  of  revolt  that  had  been  smoldering  for 
many  years.  These  expressions  are  found  in  the  list 
of  sixty-seven  articles — embodying  the  ideas  of  Wiclif 
as  they  had  survived  in  Lollardism,  and  even  the 
doctrines  of  Luther  and  Zwingli.  "They  contain," 
says  Fuller,  "the  Protestant  religion  in  ore,  happily 
since  refined." 

To  meet  this  rising  and  threatening  wave  of  reform- 
atory spirit  the  moderately  reactionary  Ten  Articles 
were  formulated  in  1536.  In  brief,  these  articles 
teach:  That  the  words  of  the  canonical  Scriptures,  and 
the  Apostles',  Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds  are 
infallible;  that  the  sacraments  of  Baptism,  Penance, 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  necessary  to  salvation;  that 
Justification  is  the  remission  of  our  sins,  and  our 
acceptance  as  reconciliation  unto  the  grace  and  favor 
of  God,  that  is  to  say,  our  perfect  renovation  in  Christ; 
images  may  be  used  as  "kindlers  of  men's  minds  to 
remember  and  lament  their  sins"  ;  saints  should  receive 
honor  "as  the  elect  of  Christ,  and  as  advancers  of  our 
prayers  and  demands  unto  Christ;  saints  in  heaven 
praying  for  us  and  with  us  to  Almighty  God  may  be 
supplicated  by  us;  while  Rites  and  Ceremonies  have 
no  power  to  remit  sins  "they  are  good  and  laudable  to 
put  us  in  remembrance  of  those  things  that  they  do 
signify";  and  finally  it  is  a  good  and  charitable  deed 
to  pray  for  souls  departed,  "but,  the  place  where  they 
be,  and  the  name  thereof,  and  the  kind  of  pains  there, 
be  to  us  uncertain  by  Scripture."     The  Ten  Articles 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  333 

have  been  properly  regarded   as  the  precursors  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England. 

Immediately  succeeding  the  publication  of  the 
articles,  Henry's  Vicar-General,  Cromwell,  issued  a 
series  of  important  injunctions  to  the  effect  that: 
"Every  parson  or  proprietary  of  a  church  shall  provide 
a  Bible  in  Latin  and  English  to  be  laid  in  the  choir 
for  every  one  to  read  at  their  pleasure."  The 
approved  version  was  that  of  Miles  Coverdale,  which 
had  appeared  in  1 535.  Parents  were  also  encouraged  to 
teach  their  children  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  and 
Ten  Commandments  in  English. 

The  Ten  Articles  were  followed  in  1537  by  The  Insti- 
tutioti  of  a  Christian  Man,  or  as  it  was  commonly  called. 
The  Bishof  s  Book.  It  was  fuller  than  the  articles, 
containing  an  exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Ten  Commandments.  The 
articles  had  recognized  but  three  of  the  sacraments, 
but  the  Bishop's  Book  returned  to  the  seven. 

In  1539  the  Statute  of  the  Six  Articles  defining 
heresy  was  issued.  Heresy  consiste^Tin  the  denial  of: 
Transubstantiation;  communion  in  one  kind  for  lay- 
men; celibacy  of  the  priesthood;  inviolability  of  vows 
of  chastity;  necessity  of  private  masses;  necessity  of 
auricular  confession.  It  was  an  act  for  "abolishing 
di\'ersity  of  opinion  in  certain  articles  concerning  the 
Christian  religion."  The  consequence  was  a  revival 
of  persecution.  "In  London  alone  five  hundred 
Protestants  were  indicted  under  the  new  act."  Many 
reformers  felt  obliged  to  leave  the  country.  They 
went  chiefly  to  Germany  and  Switzerland. 

In  1543  appeared  A  Necessary  Doctrine  and  Erudition 
of  Any  Christia?i  Man,  or,  as  it  was  popularly  called, 
The  Kings  Book.     This  book  is  decidedly  reactionary. 


334    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

We  have  already  noted  the  king's  effort  to  set  forth 
and  publish  the  Scriptures,  but  now  all  this  is  changed. 
Henry  has  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  entire  Bible 
is  convenient  and  necessary  for  the  instruction  of  those 
whose  office  it  is  to  teach  others,  "but  for  the  other 
part  of  the  church,  ordained  to  be  taught,  it  ought  to 
be  deemed  certainly  that  the  reading  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  is  not  so  necessary  for  all  those  folks 
that  of  duty  they  ought  and  be  bound  to  read  it,  but  as 
the  prince  and  policy  of  the  realm  shall  think  con- 
venient, so  to  be  tolerated  or  taken  from  it,  consonant 
whereunto  the  politic  law  of  our  realm  hath  now 
restrained  it  from  a  great  many,  esteeming  it  sufficient 
for  those  so  restrained  to  hear  and  truly  bear  away  the 
doctrine  of  Scripture  taught  by  the  preachers." 

At  first  sight  it  would  not  seem  that  there  was  any 
real  reformation  in  the  time  of  Henry  VHI.  The 
church  only  exchanged  an  ecclesiastical  for  a  secular 
pope — a  pope  who  for  injustice  and  cruelty  could 
hardly  have  been  surpassed.  But  yet  there  are  certain 
features  of  the  reign  that  look  toward  reformation. 
Among  these  are:  The  almost  complete  break  of  the 
church  in  England  with  the  Roman  Church;  the  smol- 
dering thoughts  of  men  found  crude  expression,  and 
having  been  once  expressed  they  will  never  again  be 
suppressed;  and  it  was,  moreover,  probably  best  for 
society  and  religion  that  the  monasteries  be  broken  up, 
and  this  can  be  said  without  wholly  justifying  either 
the  motives  that  led  to  the  act,  or  the  manner  in  which 
it  was  done.  Bishop  Stubbs  in  his  Co?istiUttio7ial  His- 
tory very  truly  says  that  "the  world  owes  some  of  its 
greatest  debts  to  men  from  whose  memory  it  recoils." 
Henry's  great  ministers,  who  aided  him  with  their 
counsel,  and  experienced  his  ingratitude  with  more  or 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  335 

less  justice  to  themselves,  were  Wolsey,  Cranmer,  and 
Thomas  Cromwell. 

b.    Edward  VI.   {i 547-1  553) 

Edward  was  but  ten  years  of  age  when  he  came  to 
the  throne.  The  government  was  assumed  by  the 
Earl  of  Hertford,  the  king's  uncle. 

The  rising  commercial  spirit  of  the  age  led  the 
proprietors  of  the  lands  to  seek  new  and  more  lucra- 
tive ways  of  managing  their  estates.  This  led  to  the 
pasturing  rather  than  the  farming  of  the  lands,  and 
thus  many  agricultural  laborers  were  thrown  out  of 
employment  and  were  faced  by  starvation.  The  gen- 
eral condition  is  well  seen  in  a  passage  from  one  of 
Latimer's  sermons.  His  father  was  a  yeoman  with  no 
lands  of  his  own,  but  he  had  a  farm  for  which  he  paid 
three  or  four  pounds  rent  per  year.  He  kept  half  a 
dozen  men,  he  had  pasture  for  a  hundred  sheep,  his 
mother  milked  thirty  kine.  "He  was  able  and  did 
find  the  king  a  harness  with  himself  and  his  horse. 
.  .  .  He  kept  me  to  school,  or  else  I  should  not  be 
able  to  have  preached  before  the  king's  majesty  now 
...  he  kept  hospitality  for  poor  neighbors,  and  some 
alms  he  gave  to  the  poor.  .  .  .  Where  he  that  now 
hath  it  payeth  sixteen  pounds  a  year  or  more,  and  is 
not  able  to  do  anything  for  his  prince,  for  himself  or 
for  his  children,  or  give  a  cup  of  drink  to  the  poor." 
As  a  result  of  this  condition  there  were  uprisings  in 
1549  which  were  harshly  put  down. 

Edward  was  genuinely  m  favor  of  reformation. 
The  reformatory  spirit  in  the  Council  of  Regency  had 
a  decided  majority.  Edward  began  by  releasing 
prisoners,  and  allowing  exiles  to  return  home.  Among 
these  should  be  especially  mentioned  Miles  Coverdale 


336    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  John  Hooper.  A  book  of  homilies  was  prepared 
and  a  visitation  of  the  clergy  was  made.  Injunctions 
as  to  public  worship  were  sent  out,  showing  among 
other  things  the  uselessness  of  image  worship,  and  the 
abuse  of  pilgrimages.  Images  were  destroyed  and  the 
painted  walls  of  the  churches  were  whitewashed. 
Parliament  repealed  the  Six  Articles;  decreed  that  the 
Lord's  Supper  should  be  administered  in  both  kinds; 
and  appointed  a  commission  to  reform  the  services. 
This  commission  brought  out  the  First  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  in  1548.  It  was  taken  largely  from  the 
books  then  used,  but  it  contained  several  important 
changes,  among  which  are:  One  book  instead  of 
several;  two  daily  services  instead  of  the  seven  hours' 
service;  considerable  additions  of  Scripture;  in  the 
removal  of  much  rubbish  that  had  come  down  from 
earlier  times;  "in  the  omission  of  various  offices  for 
the  souls  of  the  departed,  and  numerous  prayers  which 
implied  a  belief  in  purgatory."  It  was  mainly  the 
work  of  Cranmer.* 

That  this  Prayer  Book  would  please  either  Protes- 
tants or  Romanists  was  not  to  be  expected.  Yet 
parliament  in  1549  enacted  that  it  should  come  under 
the  first  Act  of  Uniformity,  and  punishments,  even 
death,  ensued. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  the  act,  John  Hooper  steadily 
opposed  the  Prayer  Book.  He  wrote  Bullinger  say- 
ing: "I  am  so  much  offended  with  the  book,  and  that 
not  without  abundant  reason,  that  if  it  be  not  corrected, 
I  neither  can  nor  will  communicate  with  the  church  in 
the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper."  He 
declared  that  the  kingdom  of  God  is  a  spiritual  king- 
dom,   and    denied    the    pope    dominion    over    it;     he 

*See  Beckett:  £n^^.  Ref.,  pp.  200-201. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  337 

refused  to  wear  vestments,  and  refused  to  recognize 
any  merit  in  altars  and  crosses;  and  on  account  of  his 
great  influence  he  led  the  movement  which  resulted  in 
the  Second  Prayer  Book  in  1552.  This  book  was  a 
very  complete  triumph  for  Protestantism.  It  embodied 
substantially  the  doctrines  of  the  Swiss  reformation. 
Hooper  had  resided  for  perhaps  eight  years  in  com- 
pany with  Calvin,  BuUinger,  and  other  leaders  in 
Switzerland.  Moreover,  Peter  Martyr  had  been  made 
professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford,  Bucer  had  a  similar 
position  at  Cambridge;  numerous  continental  churches 
existed  in  London,  and  Hooper  had  been  powerfully 
impressed  by  the  simplicity  of  their  services;  it  was 
also  said  that  Calvin  "continued  still  to  intermeddle 
and  solicit  for  his  own  fancy."  All  these  influences 
went  into  the  new  Prayer  Book,  which  is  remarkable 
for  its  additions,  omissions  and  substitutions.  "In 
the  Communion  service  the  Ten  Commandments  were 
added,  and  the  commemorative  character  of  the  serv- 
ice emphasized  in  the  words  of  administration,  'Take 
and  eat  this,  in  remembrance  that  Christ  died  for  thee 
and  be  thankful.'  "  The  words  "commonly  called  the 
mass"  are  omitted.  In  several  cases  the  words 
"priest"  and  "altar"  give  place  to  the  words  "min- 
ister" and  "table"  or  "board." 

The  second  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed  by  parlia- 
ment on  April  6,  1552.  As  the  old  book  had  many 
champions  its  merits  were  recognized  as  follows:  "It 
is  a  very  godly  order,  agreeable  to  the  Word  of  God 
and  the  primitive  church,  very  comfortable  to  all  good 
people  desirous  to  live  in  Christian  conversation,  and 
most  profitable  to  the  state  of  this  realm."  The  new 
book  is  justified  as  coming  to  settle  divers  doubts  as  to 
the  ministration  of  the  service,  "therefore  for  the  more 


338    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

plain  and  manifest  explanation  hereof  as  for  the  more 
perfection  of  the  said  order  of  common  service." 

All  Saints  Day,  November  i,  1552,  was  the  time  set 
for  the  new  book  to  go  into  use.  Bishop  Ridley  of  St. 
Paul's  began  to  use  it  as  ordered,  and  the  prominent 
churches  followed. 

The  Council  of  Trent  was  in  session  at  this  time,  and 
the  doctrines  of  reformed  Romanism  were  being  for- 
mulated in  the  Canons  of  Trent.  It  was  a  matter  of 
importance  that  Protestantism  should  have  a  statement 
that  could  stand  against  these  canons.  In  a  letter  to 
Bullinger  Cranmer  expresses  his  ardent  desire:  "That 
in  England  or  elsewhere  there  might  be  convoked  a 
synod  of  the  most  learned  and  excellent  persons,  in 
which  provision  might  be  made  for  the  purity  of 
ecclesiastical  doctrines,  and  especially  for  an  agree- 
ment on  the  sacramentarian  controversy."  Calvin 
said  he  "would  willingly  cross  ten  seas"  to  attend  such 
a  conference.  But  for  various  reasons  such  a  council 
was  not  possible.  But  Cranmer  sought  nevertheless  to 
carry  out  his  purpose,  which  was  the  formulation  of  a 
statement  "which  should  cover  all  the  main  points  on 
which  differences  of  opinion  might  arise."  There 
were  eminent  foreign  divines  in  England  such  as  Peter 
Martyr  and  John  a  Lasco,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
but  that  their  advice  and  criticisms  were  utilized.  The 
Thirteen  Articles  based  on  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
which  twenty  years  before  Cranmer  had  sought  to  have 
enacted,  and  which  but  for  the  jealousy  of  Henry  VIII. 
might  have  been  adopted,  furnished  the  main  points' 
for  the  new  statement.  The  result  of  it  all  was  the 
famous  Far.ty-Two  Articles.  The  king  approved  the 
Articles,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  Convocation 
which  met  in  1553  sanctioned  them. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  339 

But  this  reign  of  such  marked  activity  was  destined 
to  be  short.  Within  a  few  months  after  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Second  Prayer  Book,  and  of  the  Forty-Two 
Articles,  just  at  a  time  when  all  things  were  in  a  fluid 
condition,  Edward  VI.  succumbed  to  consumption, 
and  "the  greatest  moan  was  made  for  him  as  ever  was 
heard  or  seen."  England  is  now  to  experience 
violent  religious  reaction. 

c.    Mary  (iJSJ-^SS^) 

Mary  had  one  central  purpose.  It  was  to  restore 
Romanism  in  England.  She  resolutely  set  about  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose.  She  met  with  strong 
opposition,  but  she  was  able  to  undo  temporarily 
much  of  what  had  been  accomplished  in  the  preceding 
reign.  About  three  hundred  persons  are  said  to  have 
been  burnt  during  her  reign.  Among  her  distin- 
guished victims  were  Ridley,  Latimer,  Hooper,  and 
Cranmer.  Fortunately  she  lived  but  five  years,  and 
Protestantism  could  once  more  assert  itself. 

d.   Elizabeth  {i^^8-i6oj) 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  is  one  of  the  greatest  periods 
in  English  history.  This  is  true  from  all  points  of 
view.  The  queen  was  probably  a  Protestant  in  her 
sympathies — but  in  steering  the  English  state  through 
stormy  and  treacherous  seas  it  was  often  dif^cult  to 
tell  which  side  she  was  on.  She  many  times  seemed 
and  no  doubt  often  was  inconsistent — even  contradic- 
tory in  her  positions.  While  Elizabeth  was  open  to 
criticism  throughout  her  long  and  brilliant  reign,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  she  was  always  confronted 
with  urgent  and  complicated  problems  which  were 
impossible  of  perfect  solution. 


340    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Among  the  important  events  of  Elizabeth's  reign  we 
should  note: 

1.  The  repeal  of  the  Romanist  legislation  of  Mary. 

2.  An  act  restoring  the  royal  supremacy  over  the 
church. 

The  queen's  conciliatory  spirit  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that  she  dropped  the  title  "Supreme  Head  of  the 
Church,"  and  used  the  more  general  expression,  "The 
only  supreme  governor  of  the  realm  as  well  in  all 
spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  things  or  causes  as  temporal" 
(1559).  This  act  forbade  all  foreign  jurisdiction  in 
spiritual  and  temporal  affairs,  and  bound  all  clergymen 
and  officeholders  under  the  crown. 

3.  The  restoration  of  the  Second  Praj^er  Book  of 
Edward  VI.  with  considerable  alterations. 

4.  An  Act  of  Uniformity,  1559,  binding  all  clergy- 
men to  use  this  Prayer  Book  under  graduated  penal- 
ties. All  persons  were  required  to  attend  church 
under  penalty  of  censure  and  fine,  except  for  "lawful 
or  reasonable  excuse." 

5.  A  revision  of  the  Forty-Two  Articles  of  Edward 
VI.,  reducing  them  to  Thirty-Nine  Articles  (1563). 
As  indicated  by  the  dates,  the  queen  proceeded  more 
slowly  in  the  case  of  the  Forty-Two  Articles  than  in 
that  of  the  Prayer  Book.  She  was  anxious  in  the  Con- 
fession to  conciliate  at  least  the  more  moderate  wing 
of  the  Romanists.  She  accordingly  advanced  with 
extreme  caution.  The  articles  were  carefully 
reviewed.  It  was  discovered  that  originally  they  were 
based  on  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and  the  new 
matter  now  introduced  was  taken  largely  from  the 
Lutheran  Confession  of  Wurtemburg.  Other  changes 
were  introduced  to  meet  developments  that  had 
sprung  up  since   the    original    articles  were  drafted. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  341 

"The  effect  of  this  searching  criticism  of  Parker  and 
his  colleagues  was,  first,  to  add  four  articles;  secondly, 
to  take  away  an  equal  number;  thirdly,  to  modify  by 
partial  amplification  or  curtailment  as  many  as  seven- 
teen of  the  remainder."* 

The  Thirty-Nine  Articles  in  our  own  times  consti- 
tute the  creed  of  the  Anglican  Church.  They  contain 
many  Protestant  dogmas,  but  they  also  retain  the 
Roman  hierarchy  and  much  of  the  Roman  cult. 

6.   The  rise  of  nonconformity. 

LITERATURE 

St.  John:  The  Struggle  for  Liberty  of  Co?isciefice  in 
England.     A  new  and  important  contribution. 

Houlder :  A  Short  History  of  the  Free  Churches.  A 
recent  and  exceedingly  valuable  review. 

In  every  social  revolution  there  will  surely  arise  at 
least  two  parties.  The  difference  between  the  parties 
will  be  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  revolution  ought 
to  go.  One  party  will  on  the  whole  be  conservative, 
retaining  very  much  of  what  is  old,  the  other  party 
will  incline  to  be  radical,  reducing  the  old  at  least  to 
a  minimum,  and  going  oftentimes  to  the  extent  of 
eliminating  it  entirely.  Since  the  time  of  Edward  VI. 
these  two  parties  have  been  well  defined  in  England. 
It  was  no  longer  a  question  as  to  whether  there  should 
be  Protestantism,  but  as  to  how  much  Protestantism. 
The  first  of  these  parties  is  Anglican.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles  retained  a  modified 
hierarchy,  and  in  many  other  respects  had  a  strong 
flavor  of  Romanism.  The  second  of  these  parties 
came  to  have  the  name  of  Puritan.  The  extreme  wing 
of    Puritanism    wished    to    destroy  every  vestige    of 

*See  Hardwick  as  quoted  by  Perry,  p.  194. 


342     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Romanism,  and  reduce  the  service  to  the  simplicity  of 
the  Swiss  reformers.  Elizabeth  had  no  sympathy  with 
Puritanism,  and  thought  of  it  as  exceedingly  danger- 
ous. As  a  result  of  their  views  many  of  the  Puritans 
felt  obliged  to  leave  the  Church  of  England,  and  so 
became  nonconformists.  They  were  punished  as  law- 
breakers. 

Puritanism  was  strongly  supported  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  its  opposition  to  Anglicanism  was  very 
effective.  Elizabeth,  in  order  to  meet  this  opposition, 
through  the  assistance  of  Whitgift,  in  1583,  established 
the  Court  of  High  Commission.  It  consisted  of  forty- 
four  members,  twelve  of  whom  were  bishops  and  three 
of  whom  formed  a  quorum.  Its  definite  purpose  was 
to  inquire  into  the  religious  opinions  of  people;  "to 
administer  the  oaths  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity, 
and  punish  all  refusals  to  take  them;  and  to  force 
under  penalties  the  adhesion  of  the  clergy  to  a  series 
of  propositions  founded  on  the  canon  law,  and  hitherto 
unknown  to  the  constitution  of  England."  This  court 
and  that  of  the  Star  Chamber,  which  had  existed  as  a 
judicial  form  of  the  Privy  Council  since  Henry  VII., 
became  powerful  instruments  of  tyranny.  But  the 
English  love  of  freedom  had  its  roots  far  back  in  his- 
tory, and  the  Puritans  steadily  grew  in  strength.  We 
have  already  seen  that  Hooper  exerted  a  wide  influ- 
ence in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  that  his  opposi- 
tion to  vestments  and  other  Romish  practices  was 
very  energetic.  He  may  properly  be  regarded  as  a 
forerunner  of  Puritanism. 

But  the  wide  differences  of  opinion  as  to  church 
polity  expressed  themselves  formally  as  always  through 
great  men.  Bancroft,  probably,  first  attempted  to 
show    that    the    episcopacy    was    of     divine    origin. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  343 

Hooper  had  claimed  that  the  church  had  the  right  to 
formulate  its  own  polity.  Cartwright  held  that, 
according  to  the  Scriptures,  the  form  of  polity  should 
be  Presbyterian. 

But  they  all  had  this  in  common:  they  held  to  some 
kind  of  organic  union  of  church  and  state. 

There  arose  now,  however,  a  new  form  of  Puritanism 
which  became  known  as  Independency,  or  Separatism, 
because  it  advocated  separation  from  the  state  church. 
The  Independents  were  led  by  Robert  Browne,  and  for 
this  reason  they  were  also  called  Brownists. 

But  nonconformity  thus  started  advanced  still  far- 
ther. John  Robinson  maintained  that  authority  should 
be  confined  within  the  individual  congregation.  Natu- 
rally then  when  the  persecutions  began  Robinson  and 
his  followers  were  the  first  to  suffer,  and  this  persecu- 
tion led  to  their  emigration  to  Holland.  They  reached 
Amsterdam  in  1608,  five  years  after  the  death  of  Eliza- 
beth. Robinson  was  one  of  the  great  and  large 
minded  men  of  his  age.  His  exhortation  to  the  Pil- 
grims later  on  is  an  imperishable  monument  to  his 
name.  He  said:  'T  charge  you  before  God  and  his 
blessed  angels  that  you  follow  me  no  farther  than  you 
have  seen  me  follow  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  If  God 
reveal  anything  to  you  by  any  other  instrument  of  his, 
be  as  ready  to  receive  it  as  you  were  to  receive  any 
truth  by  my  ministry;  for  I  am  persuaded  that  the 
Lord  hath  more  truth  yet  to  break  forth  from  his  Holy 
Word.  For  my  part  I  cannot  sufficiently  bewail  the 
condition  of  these  reformed  churches,  which  are  come 
to  a  period  and  will  go  no  further  than  the  instrument 
of  their  reformation." 

7.  The  persecution  of  the  Romanists.  We  have 
seen  that  Elizabeth  sought  to  conciliate  the  Romanists; 


344    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

but  when  it  was  discovered  that  they  would  not  be 
conciliated,  and  that  they  constantly  plotted  against 
her,  and  when  finally,  in  1570,  she  was  excommuni- 
cated, it  became  evident  to  her  that  they  must  be  held 
down  with  a  strong  hand.  The  Romanists  were  more 
difficult  to  control  than  the  Puritans,  because  the 
latter,  although  firm  and  persistent  in  their  convic- 
tions, were  loyal  at  heart,  and  so  in  the  main  could  be 
depended  upon  in  secular  matters.  According  to 
Romanist  writers,  about  two  hundred  and  sixty  per- 
sons perished  during  the  reign,  almost  as  many  as 
during  Mary's  reign.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  how- 
ever, that  Mary  reigned  but  five  years  while  Elizabeth 
reigned  forty-five  years.  Moreover,  Mary's  victims 
were  martyrs  to  freedom,  whereas  most  of  Elizabeth's 
were  in  the  view  of  the  laws  of  the  realm  guilty  of 
treason. 

Other  important  events  in  this  great  reign  were:  The 
alliance  of  Elizabeth  with  the  Netherlands  in  1577,  in 
which  her  vacillating  policy  is  seen;  the  destruction 
of  the  Spanish  Armada;  the  execution  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots  in  1586. 

As  the  English  Reformation  came  near  to  its  close 
it  became  necessary  for  the  Anglicans  to  defend  their 
cause  in  the  face  of  the  Romanist  attacks,  in  which 
they  repeated  with  irritating  insistency  the  question: 
"Where  was  your  church  before  the  days  of  Martin 
Luther?"  The  question  was  ably  answered  by  Bishop 
Jewell,  Richard  Hooker,  and  Dean  Field.* 

The  appearance  of  Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity 
may  be  regarded  as  a  great  event  in  the  struggle  for 
liberty  of  conscience.  Hooker  firmly  believed  in  the 
divine  institution  of  episcopacy,  but,  with  a  largeness 

*See  Perry,  pp.  199-213. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  345 

of  view  and  a  genuineness  of  sympathy  for  those  who 
held  a  different  view,  he  proceeded  to  a  profound  dis- 
cussion of  the  origin  of  authority  and  the  nature  of 
law.  It  is  near  the  end  of  the  first  book  that  he  writes 
these  famous  and  immortal  words:  "Of  Law  nothing 
less  can  be  said  than  that  her  seat  is  the  bosom  of 
God,  her  voice  the  harmony  of  the  world."  Men  like 
Hooker  belong  to  all  ages  and  all  parties. 

The  Tudors  were  virtually  dictators.  The  constitu- 
tion was  practically  set  aside.  But  with  the  single 
exception  of  Mary  the  policy  of  each  sovereign  in  the 
long  run,  although  without  their  intention,  made  for 
freedom.  In  the  contest  between  the  Anglicans  and 
Puritans  the  crown  and  the  lords  were  mainly  on  the 
side  of  the  Anglicans,  while  the  commons  were  mainly 
on  the  side  of  the  Puritans.  Through  the  Puritans  the 
ancient  rights  of  the  English  people  were  once  more 
revived  and,  although  severe  conflicts  are  still  in  store, 
the  tendency  towards  democracy  is  unmistakable  and 
irresistible.  In  the  struggles  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  sturdy  and  fundamental  English  society  was  thor- 
oughly permeated  with  the  ideas  of  Luther  and 
Melanchthon,  Zwingli  and  Bullinger,  Calvin  and  Beza, 
and  they  can  never  be  eradicated. 

The  age  of  Elizabeth  is  also  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able periods  of  literary  activity  in  all  history. 

E.     OTHER    COUNTRIES 

From  Germany  the  Reformation  spread  north  to 
Prussia,  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Poland  and  Ice- 
land; east  and  south  to  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Hun- 
gary. 

From  Switzerland  the  Reformation  spread  to  France, 
Scotland,  and  Holland. 


346     A  Short  History   of  the  Christian  Church 

The  influence  of  both  Germany  and  Switzerland  on 
the  course  of  the  English  Reformation  was  great  and 
abiding.  It  is  nevertheless  true,  as  we  have  seen,  that 
in  England  the  movement  took  an  independent  course. 

Let  us  notice  further: 

T/ie  Freiich  Reformation 
LITERATURE 

Baird:  The  Rise  of  tlie  Huguenots,  2  vo\^.  The  Hugue- 
nots and  Henry  of  Navarre ,  2  vols.  The  Hngtie?iots  and 
the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Apatites,  2  vols. 

Browning:  A  History  of  the  Hngtienots.     2  vols. 

Blair:  He?iry  of  Navarre  and  tJie  Religions  Wars. 

Willert:  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Bower:   TJie  Fourteen  of  Meaux. 

We  have  seen  that  reformatory  ideas  were  early 
developed  in  France.  She  gave  the  great  leaders — 
Farel  and  Calvin — to  Geneva,  and  then  in  turn  received 
from  them  most  of  the  impulses  which  were  to  help 
her  on  in  her  own  attempts  at  reform.  The  conditions 
for  reformation  were  unfavorable  in  France.  The 
crusade  against  the  Albigenses  had  permanently  weak- 
ened the  cause  in  the  south.  The  people  were  vacil- 
lating. The  kings  from  Francis  I.  to  Henry  IV.  were 
unreliable.  The  worst  features  of  Italian  political 
doctrines  had  come  in  through  Machiavelli's  "Prince," 
and  Catherine  de  Medici's  personality.  Romanism 
was  strongly  entrenched  in  the  universities;  and  even 
the  Protestant  leaders,  with  the  distinguished  excep- 
tion of  Coligny,  were  lacking  in  many  of  the  qualities 
necessary  to  carry  a  great  movement  through  to  a  suc- 
cessful issue. 

The  result  was  that  while  the  French  Reformation 
brought  the   Huguenots   into  an  organization,   and   is 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  347 

full  of  thrilling  interest,  it  did  not,  as  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  England,  reach  a  perfect  consumma- 
tion. Being  thus  hampered  by  an  untoward  environ- 
ment it  was  extremely  tragical  almost  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end. 

As  the  reformers  were  unable  to  make  decisive 
strokes,  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  became  a 
dreadful  fact,  and  in  several  civil  wars  the  country  was 
laid  waste  and  deluged  with  blood. 

The  issue  of  the  struggle  was  the  establishment  of 
Henry  IV.  of  Navarre  on  the  throne  of  France — after 
he  was  "converted"  to  Romanism — and  consequently 
the  promulgation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1598.  By 
this  edict  the  Protestants  were  granted  the  religious 
freedom  for  which  they  had  contended. 

But,  after  all,  the  result  was  indecisive.  Protes- 
tantism could  not  have  a  vigorous  and  healthy  growth. 
The  Huguenots  became  a  political  party,  which  as  a 
party  was  afterwards  to  be  crushed  under  the  master- 
ful influence  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  his  efforts  to 
unify  France  and  make  her  the  leading  power  in 
Europe.* 

The  Scotch  Reformation 
LITERATURE 

Hetherington :  History  of  the  Church  in  Scotland.   2  vols. 

Mcintosh:  History  of  Civilization  in  Scotla?id.     4  vols. 

Mcintosh:  The  Story  of  Scotla?id. 

Rankin:  Handbook  of  the  Church  of  Scotlarid. 

Kinloch:  Studies  in  Scottish  Ecclesiastical  History. 

There  had  been  some  religious  dissent  in  Scotland 
before  the  Lutheran  movement  in  Germany.  The 
teachings  of  Wiclif   and    Hus  had   furnished  their  vic- 

*See  Perkins :  Richelieu.     Late  and  excellent. 


348     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

tims  in  the  fifteenth  century,  in  the  persons  of  James 
Resby,  who  was  burned  at  Perth  in  1408  for  holding 
Wiclifite  views;  and  Paul  Crawar,  a  Husite,  burned  at 
St.  Andrews  in  1433.  But  dissent  really  became  sig- 
nificant when  Ratrick  Harixillon  (1504-1528)  became  a 
student  at  the  University  of  Paris  and  was  converted 
to  Lutheranism.  He  returned  to  Scotland  to  proclaim 
his  new  views — was  opposed,  went  to  Germany,  met 
Luther  and  Melanchthon,  and  with  new  zeal  returned 
to  his  martyrdom  at  St.  Andrews  in  1528. 

The  next  promoter  of  reform  in  Scotland  was 
George  Wishart  (15 13-1546).  He,  too,  paid  the 
penalty  of  his  zeal  for  freedom  at  St.  Andrews  in  15.46. 

Thus  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  great  leader  and 
central  figure  of  the  Scotch  Reformation — John  Knox 
(1505-1572).  Largely  through  his  influence  in  1557 
what  is  known  as  the  First  Covenant  was  taken  by  a 
large  number  of  the  gentry  and  nobility.  The  cove- 
nant was  a  pledge  among  those  who  took  it  to  do  all 
in  their  power  to  advance  The  Reformation.  In  1558 
Knox  became  their  recognized  leader.  The  result  was 
the  banishment  of  Romanism  and  the  establishment  of 
Presbyterianism  in  Scotland.* 

The  Dutch  Reformation 
LITERATURE 

Brandt:  History  of  the  Reformation  in  and  about  the 
Low  Coitntries.     4  vols. 

Motley:  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  3  vols. 
History  of  the  United  Netherlands.  4  vols.  The  Life  a?id 
Death  of  John  of  Barjie  veldt.     2  vols. 

*See  Brown:  yi?,^«  A!>^^^.     2  vols.     Irxn^s:  John  Knox. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  349 

Blok:  History  of  the  People  of  the  NetJie viands.  3  vols, 
in  Eng.  to  date  Jan.  1901. 

Martyn:  The  Dutch  Reformation:  A  History  of  the 
Struggle  in  the  Netherlands  for  Civil  and  Re ligiotis  Liberty. 

Rogers:  Holla?id. 

Hansen:  The  Reformed  Clmrch  i?i  the  Netherlands. 

Putnam:  Williaju  the  Sile?it.  2  vols. 
.  In  the  Netherlands  the  conditions  were  quite  the 
opposite  of  those  in  France.  From  the  earliest  days 
the  people  of  the  Low  Countries  had  been  liberty-lov- 
ing, steadfast,  industrious,  frugal,  and  intellectual. 
This  is  seen  in  the  Great  Privilege  which  expressed  in 
early  form  the  principles  and  the  spirit  that  were  to 
lead  the  Dutch  in  their  future  history.  The  doctrines 
of  Luther  and  Calvin  were,  accordingly,  received  into 
congenial  soil  and  climate,  and  they  grew  rapidly 
almost  from  the  beginning. 

We  can  easily  understand,  therefore,  that  when  the 
cruelty  and  tyranny  of  Philip  IL  began  to  be  exercised 
upon  these  people,  who  had  inherited  great  character 
and  great  traditions,  he  would  meet  with  the  most 
determined  resistance. 

In  the  tremendous  struggle  through  which  the  Dutch 
had  to  pass,  their  remarkable  qualities  were  developed 
in  a  process  that  makes  their  history  one  of  the  most 
thrilling  stories  in  all  literature.  The  most  conspicuous 
figure  of  the  earlier  movement  was  William  of  Orange. 

The  issue  was  entirely  successful  in  Holland,  both 
politically  and  religiously.  The  form  of  the  faith  that 
finally  prevailed  in  Holland  was  Calvinism  in  its 
extremest  type.  The  rigorous  application  of  these 
doctrines  led  to  dissatisfaction,  and  finally  to  a  revolt. 
This  revolt  was  headed  by  James  Arminius  (i 560-1609), 
a  professor  of  theology  at  the  University  of  Leyden. 


350    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  controversy  was  a  very  bitter  one,  and  led  to  the 
Synod  of  Dort  in  i6i8,  in  which  Calvinism  triumphed. 
One  of  the  sad  and  inexcusable  acts  of  this  synod  was 
the  condemnation  and  execution  of  John  of  Barne- 
veldt.  Hugo  Grotius  the  great  theologian  and  jurist 
was  also  condemned  and  imprisoned. 

The  Arminian  revolt  is  of  so  much  importance  in 
subsequent  theological  thinking,  and  is  having  so  wide 
an  influence  in  our  own  times  that  it  deserves  especial 
mention  here. 

Arminius  was  a  man  of  great  natural  ability.  He 
had  studied  at  Geneva.  He  had  come  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  writings  of  Peter  Ramus,  who  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Calvin,  and  who  was  in  open  revolt 
against  the  whole  Aristotelian  system  of  education. 
Ramus  successfully  defended  for  his  thesis  before 
the  University  of  Paris  the  proposition  that,  "All 
Aristotle's  writings  are  false."  After  his  general 
preparation  Arminius  became  pastor  of  the  church  at 
Amsterdam.  Objections  had  arisen  from  time  to  time 
to  the  catechism.  Arminius  was  asked  by  the  con- 
sistory to  refute  these  objections.  But  greatly  to  his 
surprise  he  found  that  his  own  views  coincided  with 
these  objections.  In  1603  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  theology  at  Leyden,  made  vacant  by  the  death 
of  Junius.  This  appointment  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  Gomarus,  who  was  to  be  his  colleague  and  strenuous 
opponent. 

The  divergent  views  of  Arminius  were  soon  the  sub- 
ject of  general  discussion,  and  at  last,  on  February  7, 
1604,  the  issue  was  squarely  joined.  The  gauntlet  was 
thrown  down  when  Arminius  lectured  to  the  students 
on  predestination.  The  followers  of  Arminius  were 
called   Remonstrants,   and   the   followers  of  Gomarus 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  351 

were  called  Contra-Remonstrants.  In  a  work  of  this 
kind  it  is  impossible  to  go  even  into  the  general 
features  of  this  most  interesting  discussion.  We  must 
accordingly  content  ourselves  by  giving  the  summary 
statements  of  each  side — the  famous  Five  Points. 

The  Five  Points  of  Calvinism  are: 

1st.  Predestination  of  some  to  life  eternal,  and  of 
others  to  damnation,  and  this  "without  respect  to 
God's  foresight  of  men's  faith  and  good  works,  or  any 
conditions." 

2d.  "Particular  redemption;  that  is,  a  belief  that 
Christ  died  for  the  benefit  of  the  elect  alone." 

3d.  Original  sin  as  involving  the  total  corruption  of 
human  nature. 

4th.  Irresistible  grace;  that  is,  that  divine  grace 
overpowers  all  free-will  in  the  case  of  the  elect. 

5th.  "The  final  perseverance  of  all  the  elect;  they 
may  fall  partially  or  for  a  time,  but  not  finally." 

The  Five  Points  of  Arminianism  as  summarized  by 
Brandt  are  as  follows: 

1st.  "God  from  eternity  determined  to  choose  unto 
everlasting  life  all  those  who,  through  his  grace  in 
Jesus  Christ,  believe  and  unto  the  end  persist  in  faith, 
and  in  the  obedience  of  it;  on  the  contrary,  he  hath 
determined  to  reject  unto  their  everlasting  damnation 
the  impenitent  and  unbelievers." 

2d.  "Christ  has  died  for  all,  so  that  he  procured  by 
means  of  his  death  reconciliation  and  pardon  for  all; 
still  in  such  a  manner  that  none  except  believers  are 
actually  in  the  enjoyment  thereof." 

3d.  "Man  has  not  this  saving  faith  in  himself,  nor 
from  the  power  of  his  own  free-will,  but  he  needs 
thereunto  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ." 

4th.   "This  grace  is  the  beginning,  continuance,  and 


352     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

completion,  of  man's  salvation,  so  that  no  one  can 
believe,  or  continue  to  believe,  without  this  co-operative 
grace;  hence,  all  good  works  must  be  ascribed  to  the 
grace  of  God  in  Christ;  but  as  regards  the  operation 
of  this  grace  it  is  not  irresistible." 

5th.  "True  believers  have  through  divine  grace  suffi- 
cient power  to  fight  against  sin  and  gain  the  victory. 
But  whether  through  carelessness  they  might  not 
depart  from  the  holy  doctrine,  lose  a  good  conscience, 
and  neglect  grace,  should  be  clearly  ascertained  from 
Holy  Scripture  before  it  could  be  assuredly  taught." 
A  later  statement  of  this  article  was  to  the  effect  that 
those  who  had  once  truly  believed  might,  through 
their  own  fault,  be  lost.* 

Evidently  a  mile-stone  has  been  reached.  The  stu- 
dent of  history  from  the  time  of  Augustine  and 
Pelagius  to  Calvin  and  Arminius  has  seen  the  lines 
steadily  converging  to  this  point.  The  two  sides  rep- 
resent great  and  fundamental  truths,  and  the  world 
waits  still  for  the  dogmatic  theologian  who  can  har- 
monize these  truths  which  seem  to  clash  so  violently 
the  moment  the  attempt  is  made  to  confine  them  in 
propositions. 

F.     SEPARATE    REFORMATORY    MOVEMENTS 

The  truth  is  always  far  greater  than  any  man's  con- 
ception of  the  truth.  It  is  greater  even  than  the  con- 
ception of  any  school  or  party.  But  this  simple  and 
evident  fact  has  always  been  extremely  difficult  for 
men  to  learn.  A  great  man  and  his  followers  are 
prone  to  think  that  the  truth  is  all  with  them,  while 
the   error  is   all   with   their  opponents.      These   facts 

*See  Arminius:    Works.     3  vols.,  Nichols  ed. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  353 

make  it  clear  why  at  times  of  special  historical 
activity  there  are  always  numerous  and  wide  diver- 
gencies of  opinion.  Each  point  of  view  emphasizes  a 
phase  of  truth  and  makes  it  the  center  from  which  all 
truth  must  be  controlled,  and  is  intolerant  towards 
other  points  of  view  which  make  the  same  claims. 
Thus  it  is  that  conflicts  arise  and  violence  is  done  to 
truth  itself. 

Now,  there  are  few  historians  to-day  who  would  claim 
that  Luther  or  Zwingli  or  Calvin  had  all  the  truth. 
Indeed,  most  historians  would  readily  admit  that  each 
of  them  had  much  of  error.  The  inadequacy  of 
Luther's  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  is 
generally  felt.  Calvin's  doctrine  of  predestination 
was  pushed  to  excess,  and  in  many  other  respects  the 
doctrine  of  these  men  is  open  to  serious  objections. 

But  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  differences  are 
never  settled  until  they  are  settled  right.  That  there 
should,  therefore,  be  revolt  from  the  positions  of  all 
these  men  was  not  only  to  be  expected,  but  it  was 
demanded  in  the  interests  of  truth  and  the  common 
weal.  It  is  not,  accordingly,  the  true  spirit  of  history 
to  speak  of  these  people  and  their  work  in  the  lump  as 
"sects  and  heresies  accompanying  the  new  move- 
ment," or  to  treat  them  with  the  contempt  that  they 
have  too  often  received  at  the  hands  of  historians. 
For,  if  by  heresy  we  mean  departure  from  the  truth,  all 
the  great  leaders  of  the  Reformation  were  heretics 
because  all  of  them  departed  from  the  truth  in  many 
important  particulars. 

But  it  is  to  be  admitted  that  many  of  these  so-called 
sects  were  very  extreme^fanatical  and  revolutionary 
both  in  their  principles  and  their  actions.  They  did 
not  see  clearly  that  the  true  reformer  must  be  able  to 


354     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

conceive  and  hold  constantly  before  him  the  perfect 
ideal,  but  that  he  must  at  the  same  time  have  the 
patience  and  the  persistency  to  bring  the  world  as  near 
to  the  realization  of  the  ideal  as  it  will  come,  and  then 
wait  for  results.  This  must  be  the  policy  until  an 
enlightened  conscience  is  violated.  Then  the  only 
alternative  is  conflict  at  all  risks. 

Now  it  was  natural  that  when  Luther  and  Zwingli 
began  to  see  whither  their  principles  were  leading 
them  they  should  tend  to  become  more  conservative. 
But  it  was  just  as  natural  that  the  radicals  should 
reproach  them  for  stopping  far  short  of  a  true  reforma- 
tion. 

The  historian  will  be  more  and  more  disposed  to 
admit  that  there  was  error  on  all  sides  in  this  great 
period,  but  he  will  just  as  candidly  admit  that  there 
was  much  of  truth  on  all  sides  even  among  the  radicals. 


T/ie  Ajiabaptists 
LITERATURE 

Newman:  History  of  Anti-Pedobaptism.  Full  bibli- 
ography. 

Bur  rage:  History  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Switzerlaiid. 
Baptist  Hy 77171  Writers  a7id  Their  Hym7is. 

Keller :  Geschichte  der  Wiedertdiifer  imd  ihres  Reichs  zu 
Mi'mster. 

Rembert:  Die  Wiedertdufer  i7n  Herzogthum  Jiilich. 

Far  the  most  important  of  these  special  movements 
was  that  which  goes  under  the  name  of  Anabaptist — 
a  name  which  they  always  rejected.  They  probably 
perpetuated  ideas  that  had  come  down  from  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,   but  they  were   immensely  quickened    and 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  355 

incited  to  action  by  the  general  movement  towards 
reform.  The  student  is  impressed  with  the  absence  of 
anything  that  resembled  a  compact  system  of  doc- 
trines. 

Among  the  things  which  they  held  in  common  were: 
The  rejection  of  infant  baptism;  and  the  absolute 
separation  of  church  and  state.  In  these  ideas  they 
anticipated  some  of  the  positions  of  several  of  the 
great  modern  denominations  of  Christians — as  Baptists, 
Congregationalists  and  Quakers. 

Many  of  them  went  to  great  extremes,  while  many 
others  demanded  nothing  more  than  liberty  of  con- 
science, which  was  not  granted  them.  They  were 
widely  extended  in  Switzerland,  Germany,  Holland, 
and  even  in  England.  They  were  looked  upon  as 
revolutionists,  and  consequently  as  a  menace  to  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation.  The  Reformers,  there- 
fore, hated  them  at  least  as  bitterly  as  they  hated  the 
Romanists.  They  were  accordingly  persecuted  with- 
out compunction.  In  1529,  at  Spires,  the  Diet 
instructed  Protestants  and  Romanists  alike  to  put 
them  to  death.  Among  the  noble  men  who  perished 
are:  Felix  Mantz,  at  Zurich,  1527;  Hiibmaier,  at 
Vienna,  1528;  Blaurock,  in  the  Tyrol,  1529. 

While  many  of  the  leaders  of  the  Anabaptists,  such 
as  Mantz  and  Hiibmaier,  were  men  of  education,  the 
greater  part  were  without  education,  but  none  the  less 
quiet  and  genuinely  pious. 

The  Schwejickfeldians 

This  sect  was  founded  by  Kaspar  Schwenckfeld  (1489- 
1561).  He  was  born  in  a  noble  family  at  Ossig,  in 
Silesia.  He  early  accepted  Luther's  teachings  and 
introduced  them  into  Silesia.     But  as  time  went  on  it 


356    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

appeared  to  him  that  the  Lutheran  doctrines  were 
not  bearing  adequate  fruits  in  the  lives  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  was  accordingly  led  to  inquire  into  the 
causes  of  this  barrenness.  It  soon  became  clear  to 
him  that  there  were  several  defects  in  the  gospel 
as  Luther  preached  it.  In  the  first  place  it  was 
too  external  and  objective.  In  the  second  place  his 
interpretation  of  Scripture  was  too  literal,  and  con- 
sequently unspiritual.  In  the  third  place  his  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  alone  was  inadequate, 
even  dangerous.  What  was  needed  was  that  the 
life  of  God  in  the  believer  should  be  made  basal. 
He  was  thus  led  to  the  idea  of  the  indwelling  Christ, 
and  the  "inner  light  that  comes  from  that  divine  in- 
dwelling." 

Schwenckfeld  also  found  himself  at  variance  with 
Luther  on  the  nature  of  Christ's  presence  in  the  Sup- 
per. He  advocated  a  spiritual  presence  not  unlike 
that  advocated  by  Calvin  later  on.  This  difference 
with  Luther  could  not  be  looked  on  with  allowance. 
Schwenckfeld  accordingly  left  Silesia  in  1529  and  went 
to  Strasburg.  But  he  had  no  permanent  abiding  place 
during  his  remaining  years.  He  was  the  object  of 
much  of  the  coarse  abuse  of  which  the  great  reformer 
was  unfortunately  so  great  a  master.  Even  the  gentle 
Melanchthon,  when  near  the  end  of  his  life,  sought  to 
suppress  his  teachings. 

But  it  should  be  remembered  that  Schwenckfeld  was 
not  opposed  to  external  forms  or  to  church  organiza- 
tion. His  great  thought  was  rather  that  all  these  are 
but  means,  and  that  they  are  worthless  unless  they  are 
used  for  the  development  of  the  inner  life  that  is  hid 
with  Christ  in  God.  His  life  was  the  best  exemplifica- 
tion of  his  teachings. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  357 

The  Socinians 
LITERATURE 

Fock:  Der  Sociniaiiisnnts. 

Distinguished  Unitarian  Clergymen:  Discotirses  on  the 
Origiji  and  History  of  Unitarianism. 

Turner:  Lives  of  Eminent  Unitarians. 

If  certain  divisions  of  the  Anabaptists  were  social- 
istic, and  if  the  Schwenckfeldians  were  mystical,  it  was 
reserved  for  the  Socinians  to  develop  to  the  fullest 
extent  the  rationalistic  side  of  the  Reformation. 

Some  of  the  Anabaptists  were  inclined  to  rationalism, 
as  for  instance  John  Denck.  Indeed,  it  came  about 
that  the  doctrines  of  Sabellius,  Arius  and  Photinus  all 
had  representatives.  But  the  anti-trinitarian  move- 
ment was  led  by  three  principal  men — Michael  Servetus, 
Laelius  and  Faustus  Socinus.  It  was  from  the  latter 
that  the  name  Socinianism  was  given  to  the  movement. 

a.  Michael  Servettis  {i3og-i^jj) 
Servetus  co-operated  with  the  reformers,  but  became 
seriously  troubled  about  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as 
ordinarily  stated.  In  1531  he  published  his  book  On 
the  Errors  of  the  Trinity.  His  teachings  were  widely 
diffused.  He  was  engaged  in  many  debates,  and 
greatly  aroused  and  annoyed  Calvin.  He  was  at  last 
burned  at  Geneva  in  1553'. 

b.  Laelius  Soci?ins  {1323-1362) 
But  for  the  real  leaders  of  the  movement  we  must 
turn  to  Italy.  The  deepest  cause  was  the  critical 
spirit  of  the  Renaissance  which  on  its  theological  side 
led  straight  to  rationalism.  Laelius  Socinus  was  born 
at  Siena.  He  visited  many  cities,  but  was  cautious 
about  giving  direct  expression  to  his  views. 


358     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

c.  Faustus  Socmiis  {i§jg-i6o4) 
Faustus  was  also  born  at  Siena.  He  was  the  nephew 
of  Laelius,  and  the  real  founder  of  Unitarianism.  He 
was  first  a  student  of  law,  and  then  of  theology.  The 
writings  of  his  uncle  came  to  him  by  inheritance. 
They  quickened  and  gave  direction  to  his  thought. 
He  resided  for  a  long  time  at  Florence,  then  three 
years  at  Basel,  and  finally  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  at  Padua. 

The  Socinians  held  to  the  absolute  authority  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  being  and  holiness  of 
God  was  their  fundamental  doctrine.  They  denied 
the  pre-existence  of  Christ,  and  so  His  divinity.  He 
was  a  man,  but  not  a  mere  man;  for  He  was  conceived 
by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  so  is  the  Son  of  God.  Before 
He  entered  upon  His  career  He  was  elevated  into  the 
presence  of  God,  and  there  invested  with  authority, 
and  "as  the  high  reward  of  obedience  which  He 
showed  in  His  capacity  of  Pattern-man,  of  Teacher, 
and  of  Legislator,  He  was  finally  admitted  to  a  share 
in  the  Divine  Sovereignty  and  made  in  one  sense 
equal  with  the  Father."  Christ  may  therefore  have 
secondary  adoration,  provided  it  does  not  trench  on 
the  worship  of  God  Himself.* 

The  doctrines  of  Socinianism  are  embodied  in  the 
Racovian  Catechism,  begun  by  Socinus  and  completed 
the  year  after  his  death. 

G.  THE  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  REFORMATION 

If  we  look  for  the  predisposing  causes  of  this  great 
convulsion  we  shall  find  them  to  be  social,  political 
and  religious.  The  movement  was  general,  and  it  can 
only  be  understood  when  it  is  studied   in   all  its  rela- 

*See  Hardwick,  p.  265. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  359 

tions.  Old  ideas  and  institutions  must  now  give  place 
to  ideas  and  institutions  representing  an  advanced 
stage  of  society.  The  supreme  test  of  an  institution  is 
found  in  what  it  is  doing  for  man.  It  is  not  in  practice 
to  be  expected  that  any  human  institution  will  be  per- 
fect. But  when  we  have  allowed  for  individual  defects 
and  shortcomings  we  ask:  Is  the  institution  still  an 
essential  factor  in  human  weal?  or,  Are  its  defects  so 
essential  as  to  block  all  progress  and  so  to  menace  the 
very  existence  of  society?  Tried  by  this  test  all  the 
institutions  of  the  fifteenth  century  were  found  want- 
ing— the  institutions  of  the  church  most  of  all.  The 
corruption  of  the  best  is  the  worst. 

The  situation  accordingly  was  such  that  there  could 
be  no  compromise.  The  changes  that  were  demanded 
in  the  religious  life  must  be  radical.  But  just  how  was 
this  the  case?  The  answer  from  the  new  point  of  view 
is  that  the  deepest  longing  of  a  man  who  is  conscious 
of  his  sins  is  that  he  wants  immediate  access  to  God 
who  alone  can  forgive  his  sins.  This  access  must  be 
through  Christ  the  God-man  and  through  no  other 
channel. 

Now,  as  we  have  seen,  through  the  preceding  cen- 
turies, and  since  the  time  of  our  Lord  and  His  apos- 
tles, there  had  grown  up  an  elaborate  hierarchy  with  a 
graduated  priesthood,  and  an  exceedingly  complicated 
system  of  ceremonies.  The  teaching  that  generally 
prevailed  was  that  it  was  only  through  this  intricate 
machinery  that  man  could  at  last  reach  God.  The 
entire  system  had  become  grossly  external  and 
immoral.  The  priest  granted  or  refused  absolution 
according  to  his  own  arbitrary  will.  And  so  it  often 
happened  that  absolution  was  often  granted  where  it 
was  undeserved,  and  refused  where  it  was  deserved. 


360     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Along  with  this  unnatural  and  unchristian  state  of 
things  came  the  most  cruel  tyranny  and  persecution 
and  the  most  shocking  immorality  extending  from  the 
papal  see  down  to  the  lowest  priest.  The  system  had 
failed  precisely  at  the  point  where  an  acceptable  sys- 
tem must  succeed — in  its  influence  on  the  life  and  hap- 
piness of  society.  But  the  Reformation  swept  away 
all  this  perverted  growth  of  the  centuries,  and  taught 
t/ie  priesthood  of  all  believers. 

The  reformers  went  back  to  original  sources,  and 
this  brought  the  Bible  to  the  forefront.  In  the  Bible 
God  spake  to  every  individual  immediately  as  in  the 
primitive  times  He  had  spoken  through  the  prophets 
and  apostles.  As  in  the  olden  times  He  had  spoken 
through  His  prophets,  so  in  the  New  Testament  He 
spake  through  Christ  and  the  apostles. 

Organically  connected  with  the  doctrine  of  the  uni- 
versal priesthood  of  believers  is  the  doctrine  oi  justifi- 
catiofi  by  faith.  Faith  is  an  internal  power  as  opposed 
to  an  external  ceremony.  It  does  away  with  the  idea 
of  priestly  intervention,  and  teaches  that  the  penitent 
sinner  can  go  directly  to  God  and  secure  pardon. 

The  variations  of  doctrine  among  the  reformers  were 
numerous  and  often  fundamental.  Luther  and  Calvin 
were  both  Augustinians,  but  their  points  of  view  were 
far  apart.  They  mainly  agreed  on  predestination. 
But  Luther  was  profoundly  impressed  with  man's  cor- 
ruption and  moral  impotence.  Nothing  short  of  divine 
power  could  remove  them.  Calvin  was  especially 
moved  by  the  majesty  and  infinite  perfection  of  God. 
From  the  Divine  Sovereignty  the  powerlessness  of  sin- 
ful human  nature  was  a  natural  deduction.* 

But    there   were    also   great    doctrinal    differences 

*See  Green:  Creeds,  p.  109, 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  361 

between  England  and  the  continent.  Augustine 
dominated  the  continental  theology,  and  Augustine 
regarded  most  of  the  fundamental  questions,  such  as 
Divine  Sovereignty  and  Free  Moral  Agency  as  settled. 
The  Anglican  theology  was  much  more,  but  not  com- 
pletely, under  the  influence  of  Origen.  "The  Oxford 
Reformers,"  says  Seebohm,  "took  a  firm  stand  behind 
this  dogmatic  power;  behind  \.\\?X  of  Augustine;  behind 
even  the  schism  between  eastern  and  western  Christen- 
dom; behind  \.h.osQ  patristic  hypotheses  which  grew  up 
into  scholastic  theology;  behind  \\\dX  notion  of  church 
authority  by  which  these  hypotheses  obtained  a  ficti- 
tious verification;  behind  t\\Q  theory  of  plenary  inspira- 
tion without  which  the  Scriptures  could  not  have  been 
converted,  as  they  were,  to  a  mass  of  new  material  for 
the  manufacture  of  any  quantity  of  hypotheses — behind 
all  these — on  the  foundation  of  fact  which  underlies 
them  all"  {Oxford  Reformers,  p.  146). 

The  statement  of  the  earliest  Protestant  theology  is 
found  in  the  Augsburg  Confession,  composed  by 
Melanchthon  in  1530,  and  approved  by  Luther,  and  in 
Melanchthon's  Loci  Coimmines. 

The  Sclimalkald  Articles  and  the  later  Catechism  were 
essentially  the  same.  Luther's  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone  was  perverted  into  antinomianism 
on  one  side  by  Agricola,  and  into  mysticism  on  the 
other  by  Osiander. 

With  closer  definition  arose  differences  in  Germany. 
These  differences  led  to  controversies.  For  instance, 
the  question  came  up  whether  any  of  the  Roman  forms 
should  be  retained.  To  the  rigid  Lutherans  they  were 
sinful,  but  to  Melanchthon's  followers  it  was  a  matter 
of  indifference.  Thus  arose  the  Adiaphoristic,  or 
Indifference,  controversy. 


362    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  question  also  arose  as  to  whether  there  is  still 
left  in  the  sinful  soul  any  power  that  may  co-operate 
with  the  Holy  Spirit.  Some  maintained  the  strict 
Augustinian  view,  and  we  have  the  Sy?iergistic,  or 
Co-operative,  controversy. 

The  Swiss  theology  was  embodied  in  the  First  Hel- 
vetic Confession  (1536),  in  Calvin's  Institutes  (1536), 
and  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession  (1566).  The 
Catechisms  followed  closely. 

In  Holland  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the 
Belgic  Confession  became  the  basis  of  theological 
instruction.  But  differences  arose  between  infralap- 
sarianism  and  supralapsarianism.  Arminius,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  asked  to  participate,  and  the  final  result 
was  the  great  Arminian  revolt,  and  the  permanent 
establishment  of  Arminianism  in  the  world  if  not  in 
Holland. 

In  England  the  theological  statement  of  the  estab- 
lished church  is  found  in  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles. 
But  the  rise  of  Puritanism  led  to  a  demand  for  revision 
of  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles.  But  the  idea  of  revision 
was  soon  abandoned,  and  the  Westminster  Assembly 
devoted  its  attention  to  the  formation  of  a  new  consti- 
tution. After  a  great  debate  of  nearly  four  years,  in 
which  representatives  of  many  views  participated,  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  was  adopted. 

H.     THE    COUNTER    REFORMATION 
LITERATURE 
Droysen:  GeschicJitc  dcr  Gc genre  formation. 
Pennington:   TJie  Coimter- Reformation  i?i  Europe. 
Symonds:   Tlie  Catholic  Reaction.     2  vols. 
Ward:   Tlie  Coiuiter-Reformation. 
We  have  observed  that  all  through  the  Middle  Ages 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  363 

there  were  individuals  who  earnestly  desired  reform. 
There  were  also  great  institutions  as  the  different 
orders  of  monasticism  whose  founding  was  a  protest 
against  corruption  in  religion.  The  councils  of  Pisa, 
Constance  and  Basle  were  called  to  reform  the  church 
in  head  and  members.  Even  in  the  time  of  Leo  X. 
there  was  a  decided  reformatory  spirit  which  expressed 
itself  in  the  Oratory  of  Divine  Love.  It  is  not,  there- 
fore, surprising  that  when  the  Roman  church  stood 
face  to  face  with  widespread  and  determined  revolu- 
tion, the  recuperative  forces  of  Romanism  should  unite 
and  make  an  earnest  effort.  Now  the  Reformation 
was  to  be  radical,  but  the  counter-reformation  was  to 
be  conservative.  While  the  motives  of  some  of  the 
Romanist  reformers  were  selfish,  on  the  whole  it  may 
be  granted  that  the  movement  was  sincere.  But  it 
sought  a  purification  of  morals  and  life  within  the 
forms  of  the  mediaeval  hierarchy.  It  had  not  the 
slightest  idea  of  yielding  a  single  one  of  the  points 
which  the  Protestants  regarded  as  the  chief  sources  of 
corruption.     These  were  to  remain  intact. 

There  were  still  some  who  hoped  for  a  compromise, 
and  who  would  have  Rome  yield  some  points  to  the 
Protestants.  Among  these  mediators  were  Erasmus, 
Wizel,  Cassander  and  Contarini. 

There  were  others  who  saw  the  strong  points  in  the 
methods  of  the  reformers  and  adopted  them.  Thus 
we  see  attempts  to  bring  about  reform  through  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge.  Eck  wrote  in  1529  his  Loci 
Com?itimes  contra  Hacrcticos, — Commonplaces  against 
Heretics — as  a  rejoinder  to  Melanchthon's  Coinmoji- 
places.  Emser  made  a  translation  of  the  Bible  which 
has  been  called  a  poor  imitation  of  Luther's  transla- 
tion.     There  were   also  various   synodal   attempts   at 


364    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

reformation.     But  all  these  efforts  counted  for  little 
or  nothing. 

The  counter-reformation  was  to  be  a  great  fact,  but 
it  was  to  come  about  chiefly  through  three  agencies — 
the  Order  of  Jesuits,  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  the 
Inquisition. 

The  Order  of  the  Jesuits 
LITERATURE 

Hughes:  Loyola. 

Muller:  Les  Origiiies  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  Ignace 
et  Lainez.  Shows  that  Loyola  borrowed  many  of  his 
leading  ideas  from  the  Mohammedans. 

Steinmetz:  History  of  the  Jesuits.     3  vols. 

This  order  was  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (1491- 
1556).  Disappointed  in  his  military  ambitions, 
Loyola,  inspired  by  reading  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
became  a  spiritual  knight.  He  developed  the  plan  for 
a  new  order,  and  was  seconded  by  Xavier,  Faber, 
Lainez  and  others.  Their  vow  was  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obediejice  to  the  pope.  The  new  order  had  a  consti- 
tution which  was  based  upon  Loyola's  book  oi  Spiritual 
Exercises.  The  discipline  was  the  extreme  of  severity. 
There  was  to  be  absolute  obedience  of  each  member  to 
the  superior,  and  of  the  order  to  the  pope.  Among 
their  principles  we  find  the  following:  The  end  justifies 
the  means;  the  right  to  make  promises  with  mental 
reservations;  the  right  to  distinguish  between  theolog- 
ical obedience  and  philosophical  obedience. 

The  original  purpose  of  the  Jesuits  was  to  go  to 
Palestine  and  spend  their  lives  in  efforts  to  convert  the 
Saracens.  But  they  had  pledged  obedience  to  the 
pope,  and  he  desired  to  use  them  against  the  Protes- 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  365 

tants.  They  began  their  work  in  Sweden,  but  they 
spread  with  unprecedented  rapidity.  The  power  of 
the  organization  was  soon  irresistible.  They  con- 
trolled and  founded  schools  and  colleges,  and  converts 
came  in  crowds  from  all  classes  of  society.  The 
order  thus  became  one  of  the  most  powerful  agencies 
in  counteracting  Protestantism. 

The  Cotmcil  of  Trent 
LITERATURE 

Le  Plat:  Monume^itoriim  ad  Hist.   Council.   Trid.  Spec- 
tantium  Amplissima  Collectio. 

Waterworth :   Cano?is    a?id  Decrees   of  the    Cotmcil   of 
Tre?it. 

Sarpi:  Istoria  del  Cone.  Tride?it.     4  vols. 

Bungener :  Histoire  du  Co?icile  de  Tre?ite. 

Froude :  Lectures  on  the  Cou?icil  of  Trent. 

Calvin:  The  Canons  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

There  had  been  numerous  demands  for  a  general 
council.  But  the  experiences  at  Constance  and  Basel 
had  taught  the  popes  to  beware  of  councils.  But 
Paul  III.  finally  yielded  to  the  wishes  of  Charles  V. 
and  a  general  council  was  called.  It  finally  met  at 
Trent  on  December  15,  1545.  The  composition  of  the 
council  showed  several  conflicting  elements.  Through 
bribery  it  was  decided  that  the  voting  should  be  not 
by  nations  but  by  individuals.  As  the  Italians  were 
largely  in  the  majority  they  controlled  the  decisions 
almost  from  the  start.  So  the  council  was  directed  by 
Caraffa  and  the  Jesuits.  There  was  not  the  slightest 
showing  for  the  liberals,  or  for  the  evangelical  Roman- 
ists. It  had  been  the  wish  of  the  emperor  that  the 
council  should  first  give  its  attention  to  the  subject  of 


366    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

reform.  But,  much  to  his  disappointment,  it  took  up 
the  dogmas  of  the  church.  Its  decrees  were  conserv- 
ative to  the  core.  It  condemned  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation,  and  set  up  counter  statements  to  almost 
every  one  of  them. 

It  naturally  began  with  the  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  apocryphal  writings  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  made  canonical.  The  Vulgate  as  corrected  by  the 
pope  was  to  be  the  only  authentic  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  sole  interpreter  of  the  Bible  was  the 
church.  "Unwritten  traditions,  which  have  been 
received  either  from  Christ  himself,  or  transmitted  in 
the  church,  are  all  to  be  accepted  with  respect  and 
veneration  equal  to  that  which  is  due  to  the  Scrip- 
tures." To  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone 
the  merit  of  good  works  is  opposed.  If  concupiscence 
remained  in  the  individual  after  baptism  it  was  not  of 
the  nature  of  sin.  Transubstantiation  and  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass  were  affirmed. 

Indeed,  all  the  principal  mediaeval  features  of  the 
hierarchy  were  substantiated  in  a  clear  and  logical 
form. 

Some  steps  were  taken  towards  reform,  but  the  chief 
work  of  the  Council  of  Trent  was  a  restatement  of  the 
doctrines  of  Romanism.  From  this  time  Romanism 
took  on  a  new  life.  It  was  consolidated  and  presented 
a  compact  and  well-organized  opposition  to  the  Refor- 
mation. 

T/ie  Inquisition^ 

But  it  was  not  sufficient  simply  to  meet  and  decree. 
The  decrees  of  the  council  must  be  practically  carried 
out.     The  most  efficient  means  for  accomplishing  this 

♦See   Lea:  History  of  the  Inquisition.     3  vols. 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  367 

result  was  the  Inquisition.  Before  the  council  it  had 
been  recognized  on  the  recommendation  of  Caraffa. 
As  Paul  IV.  he  applied  it  relentlessly,  and  very  soon 
there  was  hardly  a  trace  of  Protestantism  left  in  Italy. 
But  the  Inquisition  did  not  stop  with  the  destruction 
of  persons.  It  went  further  and  destroyed  all  heretical 
books.  It  was  so  successful  that  in  some  localities  the 
book  trade  was  almost  ruined.  This  movement 
resulted  in  the  hidex  Expitrgatorius,  which  included 
not  only  entire  books  but  also  objectionable  passages 
in  books. 

Thus  the  counter-reformation  became  a  tremendous 
factor  in  the  course  of  events. 

I.     THE    THIRTY    YEARS'   WAR    (1618-I648) 
LITERATURE 

Gindely:  A  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.     2  vols. 

Schiller:  The  Thirty  Years    War. 

Gardiner:  The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Stevens :  Giistavics  Adolphus. 

Ditfurth:  Die  historisch-politische  Volkeslieder  des  dreissi- 
gen  ydhrigen  Krieges. 

But  the  period  of  the  Reformation  was  not  to  close 
until  the  world  should  experience  the  most  terrible  war 
in  history.  The  causes  that  led  up  to  this  war  were 
various.  The  Germans  had  separated  into  Protestant 
and  Roman  parties.  The  peace  of  Augsburg  had  not 
recognized  the  Calvinists,  and  it  was  unsatisfactory 
both  to  the  Protestants  and  to  the  Romanists.  The 
Council  of  Trent  had  defined  the  dogmas  of  Romanism 
more  clearly  than  ever,  and  had  made  the  Romanists 
still  more  determined  to  crush  Protestantism.  The 
Jesuits  had  developed  their  powerful  system,  and  had 
become    a   tremendous    force    in    European    society. 


368     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Their  schools  were  thronged  with  the  young  men  who 
were  to  be  leaders  in  the  effort  to  drive  Protestantism 
from  the  face  of  the  earth.  They  educated  Ferdinand 
II.,  who  more  than  any  other  single  person  was 
responsible  for  the  horrors  of  the  war. 

But  events  flowed  on  in  an  unsatisfactory  way  until 
the  Protestants,  judging  from  the  evident  drift  of 
things,  formed  a  Protestant  union  in  1608.  This  led 
later  on  to  the  formation  of  a  Romanist  league. 
From  considerations  of  policy  the  emperor  Rudolph, 
in  the  LeUer  of  Majesty,  made  important  concessions  to 
the  Bohemians.  When  later  on  Matthias  forbade  the 
Protestants  to  build  a  church  the  Protestant  Union 
came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Bohemians,  and  the 
Bohemian  period  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  begun. 
It  was  soon  ended  with  the  complete  overthrow  of 
Protestantism. 

This  caused  other  nations  to  be  concerned  for  their 
own  safety.  Christian  III.,  king  of  Denmark,  inter- 
fered, and  the  Danish  period  of  the  war  came  on  in 
1624.  In  this  period  the  brilliant  but  brutal  Wallen- 
stein  arose.  As  the  finances  of  the  empire  were  short, 
Wallenstein  adopted  the  policy  of  making  war  pay  its 
way,  and  the  horrors  of  the  war  began  to  be  realized. 

The  complete  success  of  Wallenstein  and  Tilly  led 
the  emperor,  Ferdinand  II.,  to  issue  the  Edict  of 
Restitution  in  1629.  By  this  edict  all  endowments 
and  church  lands  that  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
Protestants  since  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  were  to  be 
restored  to  the  Romanists.  Many  of  the  cases 
involved  had  been  cases  of  conversion  to  Protestant- 
ism. They  were  widely  distributed,  and  so  all  Ger- 
many was  affected.  The  carrying  out  of  the  edict 
would  have  meant  the  ruin  of  Protestantism.     But  for- 


The  Period  of  the  Reformation  369 

tunately  the  Romanist  League  had  become  very- 
jealous  of  Wallenstein,  who  was  to  carry  the  edict 
into  effect.  They  demanded  his  resignation,  and 
Ferdinand,  not  wishing  to  offend  the  league,  reluc- 
tantly consented  in  1630. 

But  now  we  come  to  the  Swedish  period  of  the  war. 
We  have  seen  that  the  Reformation  spread  from  Ger- 
many to  Sweden.  Sweden  is  now  to  repay  the  debt 
with  large  interest.  Sweden  had  become  a  strong 
nation.  The  king  was  Gustavus  Adolphus,  a  soldier, 
a  statesman  and  an  ardent  Protestant.  Whatever  may 
have  been  his  political  motives,  he  was  entirely  sin- 
cere in  his  desire  to  promote  the  cause  of  Protestant- 
ism. When  he  landed  at  Rugen  in  1630  with  fifteen 
thousand  men  the  people  hailed  him  as  a  deliverer, 
but  the  princes  were  suspicious  of  him.  But  the  cap- 
ture of  Madgeburg  by  Tilly  and  its  accompanying 
horrors,  and  Ferdinand's  instructions  to  this  same 
monster  to  go  into  Saxony  and  break  up  an  alliance 
of  Protestant  princes,  brought  the  leaders  to  their 
senses.  The  Elector  joined  Gustavus.  The  tide  now 
turned,  and  it  looked  as  if  all  were  now  going  to  be 
lost  to  the  emperor.  Wallenstein  was  recalled,  and 
defeated  at  Liitzen  in  1632.  But  the  victory  cost  the 
allied  powers  their  great  general,  for  Gustavus  was 
killed.  But  the  work  of  Gustavus  was  carried  on  by 
Oxenstiern. 

All  sides  were  now  growing  weary  of  the  war,  and 
peace  might  have  ensued  had  not  the  great  Cardinal 
Richelieu  interfered.  In  his  plans  for  the  unification 
and  exaltation  of  France  he  saw  a  powerful  rival  in 
the  house  of  Austria.  We  are  thus  led  into  the 
French  period  of  the  war,  which  lasts  from  1635  ^^  ^^e 
end. 


370    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Richelieu  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Oxenstiern 
by  which  for  services  rendered  he  was  to  be  repaid  in 
German  territory.  Richelieu's  work  was  carried  on 
after  his  death  by  Mazarin,  and  his  policy  was  realized. 
Ferdinand  II.  died  in  1637.  ^'s  son,  Ferdinand  III., 
now  conducted  a  defensive  war  against  the  French  and 
Swedes,  each  of  whom  sought  to  reimburse  itself  for 
the  part  it  had  taken  in  the  war.  Victory  after  vic- 
tory on  the  part  of  the  allies  at  last  drove  Ferdinand 
III.  to  accept  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648).  The  cost  of  the  war  is  truly  appalling.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  when  Ferdinand  II.  died,  in  1637, 
his  policy  had  resulted  in  the  death  of  ten  millions  of 
human  beings.  The  population  of  Augsburg  was 
diminished  from  eighty  thousand  to  eighteen  thou- 
sand. At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
population  of  the  German  empire  was  about  thirty 
millions,  but  at  the  close  of  the  Thirty  Years's  War  it 
was  little  more  than  twelve  millions.  So  the  figures 
run!  The  ravages  were  so  great  that  even  in  our 
days,  three  hundred  years  later,  many  portions  of  the 
country  have  scarcely  recovered. 

But  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  was  one  of  the  most 
important  events  in  all  history.  It  was  practically  the 
end  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire;  it  put  F'rance  far 
ahead  among  the  states  of  Europe;  it  made  large  addi- 
tions of  territory  to  Sweden  and  other  states  in  the 
north;  it  recognized  the  independence  of  Holland  and 
Switzerland;  1624  was  fixed  upon  as  the  "normal 
year,"  and  whether  a  state  was  to  be  Romanist  or 
Protestant  was  determined  by  its  position  at  that  time; 
the  Calvinists  were  recognized  as  having  equal  rights 
with  the  Lutherans  and  Romanists,  and  all  three  were 
to  have  the  same  freedom  of  conscience. 


CHAPTER    III 

FROM  THE  PEACE    OF  WESTPHALIA  TO 
THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

(1648-1789) 

If  we  return  to  the  consideration  of  the  relations 
between  church  and  state  we  shall  find  that  since  the 
time  of  Innocent  III.  the  church  has  gradually  lost  its 
control  over  the  state.  The  Reformation  was  a  fatal 
blow  to  pretensions  of  this  kind.  As  the  years  went 
by  a  reversal  took  place  and  the  idea  that  the  state 
should  control  the  church  had  many  advocates  who,  in 
some  cases,  were  able  to  put  their  theories  into  prac- 
tice to  a  limited  extent.  This  theory  was  advanced  by 
Thomasius,  substantially  accepted  by  Grotius,  and 
defended  in  England  by  Selden.  It  is  known  as 
Erastiaiiism,  which  is  derived  from  a  Graecized  form  of 
Lieber — a  Heidelberg  physician.* 

In  our  own  century  the  tendency  seems  to  be  towards 
disestablishment  and  the  absolute  separation  of  church 
and  state.  Any  efforts  in  the  opposite  direction  are 
probably  sporadic. 

The  Peace  of  Westphalia  finds  us  at  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  While  it  was  a  great  event 
in  the  progress  of  the  world  towards  freedom,  yet 
nobody  was  satisfied  with  it.  This  is  not  surprising. 
The  peace  was  only  a  breathing  spell,  in  which  the 
world  could  look   itself  over,  see  what  it  had  gained, 

*See  excellent  note  in  Hardwick:  Reformation,  p.  328. 

371 


372    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  lay  plans  for  advance.  For  every  problem  that 
the  Reformation  solved  it  developed  several  new  ones, 
and  social,  political,  and  religious  history  becomes  far 
more  complicated  than  ever  before.  The  student  as 
he  proceeds  will  meet  currents  and  counter-currents. 
The  conservatism  of  Rome  is  to  gain  new  strength. 
Protestantism  is  to  develop  within  itself  conservatism 
and  radicalism — these  two  constituent  qualities  of 
progress  which  lie  back  of  human  nature.  Through 
and  by  means  of  conflict  the  world  is  to  move  on 
towards  higher  and  better  things. 

With  the  seventeenth  century  a  new  state  has  its 
beginnings,  and  henceforth  will  demand  the  increas- 
ing attention  of  the  student — America.  It  will  be 
convenient  in  the  succeeding  pages  to  make  the  fol- 
lowing divisions:  Church  Development  on  the  Con- 
tinent; Church  Development  in  England;  and  Church 
Development  in  America. 

A.    Church  Development  on  the  Continent 

From  the  period  of  the  Reformation  there  are 
two  main  divisions  of  church  history — Romanism  and 
Protestantism.  Each  division  has  its  problems  and 
its  perplexities. 

A.     the    developments    in    ROMANISM 

The  princes  at  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  were  actu- 
ated mainly  by  political  motives.  They  consequently 
had  very  little  regard  for  the  papacy.  The  result  was 
that  the  papacy  received  a  serious  set-back,  and  the 
popes  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
were  much  weakened  in  their  attempts  to  solve  the 
problems  which  confronted  them. 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  373 

Among  the  problems  that  arose  for  the  Romanists  to 
settle  we  may  notice: 

Difficulties  in  the  Galilean  Church 
From  the  Middle  Ages  there  had  been  in  France  a 
spirit  that  sought  to  limit  the  encroachments  of  the 
papacy.  As  a  result  of  later  developments  we  have  a 
process  leading  to  the  Four  Articles,  a  declaration 
made  by  the  French  clergy  in  1682. 

Jansenism 
LITERATURE 

Rapin:  Histoire  de  Jajisenisme. 

Neal:  History  of  the  so-called  Ja?ise?iist  Church  in 
Holla?id. 

Beard:  Port  Royal.     2  vols. 

Pascal:  Provin£ial  Letters. 

Jansenism  grew  out  of  the  controversies  on  grace. 
It  originated  with  Michael  Bajus,  who  was  a  professor 
of  theology  at  Louvain  in  1551.  Through  Jesuit  influ- 
ences Augustinianism  had  been  almost  completely 
eliminated  from  the  Roman  theology.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  Augustine  becomes  the  controlling  force 
in  Protestant  theology.  Bajus  was  an  Augustinian. 
But  through  the  influence  of  the  Scotist  Franciscans, 
Pius  V.  condemned  seventy-six  propositions  of  Bajan- 
ism.  But  a  pope's  condemnation  had  lost  much  of  its 
power,  and  the  Louvain  professors  continued  to  teach 
Augustinianism,  and  in  1587  they  condemned  thirty- 
four  of  the  propositions  of  the  Jesuits.  This  greatly 
aroused  the  Jesuits.  In  1589  Molina,  a  Spanish  Jesuit, 
sought  to  conciliate  the  opposing  party.  His  book 
was  entitled  Concord  of  Grace  a?id  Free  Will.  His 
teaching  was  decidedly  Semi-Pelagian,  and  this  stirred 


374     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

up  the  Dominicans,  who,  following  Aquinas,  made  the 
divine  agency  the  factor  in  conversion. 

The  doctrine  of  Molina  was  changed  by  the  Jesuits 
into  what  was  called  Congruism.  Congruism  was 
taught  in  all  their  schools. 

But  the  controversy  between  Molina  and  the  Domin- 
icans grew  to  considerable  proportions.  The  pope  was 
asked  to  decide  the  question,  but  evaded  the  responsi- 
bility by  calling  a  small  council — congregationes  de 
auxiliis  gratiae — to  which  he  entrusted  the  decision. 
Nothing,  however,  was  accomplished. 

But  the  controvery  is  to  become  much  more  serious 
through  the  teaching  of  Cornelius  Jansen,  professor 
at  Louvain,  from  1630  to  1636,  and  bishop  of  Ypres 
from  1636  to  1638,  the  date  of  his  death.  Jansen  went 
into  a  thorough  examination  of  the  whole  Augustinian 
system  of  grace.  The  results  of  his  studies  were 
embodied  in  a  book  entitled  Augustmus. 

There  are  three  parts  to  the  work.  The  first  part 
points  out  the  agreement  between  Pelagianism,  Semi- 
Pelagianism,  and  Molinism.  The  second  part  shows 
the  insufficiency  of  reason  for  a  knowledge  of  grace. 
The  third  part  maintains  that,  "Man's  conversion  is 
accomplished  by  the  irresistible  action  of  grace,  man 
of  himself  being  absolutely  helpless  to  contribute  any- 
thing to  it." 

The  book  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  Jesuits. 
Nevertheless  it  was  published  in  1640 — two  years 
after  the  author's  death — and  with  the  approval  of  the 
Sorbonne.  It  was  put  under  the  ban  by  Urban  VIII. 
in  1642.  When  it  had  undergone  a  critical  examina- 
tion five  heretical  propositions  were  found.  These 
propositions  were  condemned  in  1653  by  Innocent  IX. 
The  Jansenists,   a  new  band  of  men  at  Port   Royal, 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  375 

denied  that  the  propositions  were  in  the  book,  but  the 
pope  replied  that  they  were  there  in  spirit.  He 
assured  them,  however,  that  the  bull  did  not  affect 
Augustine's  doctrine  of  gratia  efficax,  or  efficacious 
grace.     They  then  pretended  to  accept  the  bull. 

In  1656  Pascal's  Provincial  Letters  came  out  and  indi- 
rectly administered  a  scathing  rebuke  to  the  Jesuits. 
Alexander  VII.  issued  another  bull  declaring  that  the 
condemned  propositions  were  in  Augustine.  The 
Jansenists  resisted  and  were  persecuted,  and  many  of 
them  fled  the  country.  Finally,  through  Clement  IX. 
(1667-1670),  a  pacification  was  brought  about. 

The  settlement,  however,  was  only  temporary,  for 
between  1671  and  1687  Quesnel  published  his  Moral 
Reflectio7is.  The  pope  in  the  bull  Vineam  Domini 
annulled  the  pacification.  The  book  was  condemned 
in  1705,  and  in  1710  the  bull  U?iigenitiis  was  issued 
condemning  one  hundred  and  one  propositions  in  the 
work.  Quesnel  was  extreme  in  his  statements.  He 
concludes:  "If  God  wishes  to  save  the  creature,  saved 
he  will  infallibly  be;  and  hence  if  the  creature  be  lost 
it  is  because  God  would  have  it  so." 

But  the  bull  Uiiigenitus  was  equally  extreme,  and  it 
gave  great  offense  to  moderate  Romanists. 

The  general  result  of  the  Jansenist  movement  was 
two  parties  in  the  Roman  communion.  One  opposed 
the  curia,  the  constitution  and  the  doctrines  of  the 
time.  It  was  progressive.  The  other  was  thoroughly 
conservative  and  jealous  for  all  the  claims  of  Roman- 
ism.    The  leaders  of  this  second  party  were  the  Jesuits. 

The  Overthrow  of  the  Jesuits 

Jansenism  was  one  of  the  many  causes  that  con- 
tributed to  the  overthrow  of  this  order.     The  sarcasms 


376     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

of  Pascal  were  like  barbed  arrows  which  could  not  be 
removed.  The  order  through  its  vicious  ethics  prac- 
tically applied  fell  into  almost  universal  disfavor.  It 
was  suppressed  in  Portugal,  France,  Spain,  and  finally 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773  the  "whole  order,  num- 
bering 20,000  men,  was  suppressed  and  its  clerical 
members  ordered  to  fall  into  the  ranks  of  the  secular 
clergy." 

The  consequences  of  the  downfall  of  the  Jesuits  were 
far-reaching.  It  shook  Romanism  to  its  very  basis. 
"It  was  the  fall  of  the  outworks  of  mediaeval  popery. 
Assaults  on  the  citadel  rapidly  followed."  In  France 
religion  was  overthrown  by  the  Republicans.  In  Italy 
the  history  of  papal  supremacy  was  examined  and  its 
devious  ways  were  pointed  out.  The  Inquisition  was 
forbidden,  religious  pageantry  was  reduced,  spiritual 
courts  were  brought  under  control,  and  the  clergy 
were  taxed  as  laymen. 

In  Austria  great  reforms  were  undertaken  by  Joseph 
II.  His  doctrine  was  that  all  national  agencies  should 
be  concentrated  in  the  crown.  He  restricted  Roman 
bulls;  prohibited  pilgrimages;  abolished  mendicant 
monks;  converted  half  the  monasteries  into  colleges, 
hospitals,  and  barracks,  and  demanded  that  the  estab- 
lishments should  subserve  pastoral  and  educational 
purposes.  The  vernacular  was  to  be  used  for  all  serv- 
ices except  the  mass.  Protestants  and  Greeks  were  to 
be  tolerated.* 

But  Joseph  had  not  learned  that  great  reformation 
cannot  take  place  suddenly.  His  intentions  were  the 
best,  but  he  did  not  live  long  enough  for  his  people  to 
find  him  out.  At  the  early  age  of  forty-nine  (1790)  he 
succumbed  to  a  fever.      His  epitaph,  according  to  his 

*See  Jennings:  Manual  of  Chtirch  History.     Vol.  II. 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  377 

own  wish,  was:  "Here  lies  a  prince  whose  intentions 
were  pure,  but  who  had  the  misfortune  to  see  all  his 
plans  shattered." 

Quietism 

We  have  seen  how  mysticism  represented  a  revolt 
against  the  deadness  of  scholastic  theology.  Quietism 
was  a  mystical  reaction  against  the  heartless  rational- 
ism of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  much  less 
serious  in  its  consequences  than  Jansenism,  yet  it 
caused  considerable  of  a  stir. 

Quietism  had  three  chief  promoters: 

a.  Michael  Molinos — a  Spaniard  {i62'/-i6q6) 

Molinos  was  the  chief  agent  in  starting  the  move- 
ment. The  title  of  his  book  was  The  Spiritual  Guide. 
At  first  it  was  very  popular.  But  its  tendencies  were 
soon  discovered,  and  its  author  was  compelled  to 
retract.  He  was,  nevertheless,  imprisoned  until  his 
death. 

The  doctrine  of  Molinos  is  as  follows:  "To  be  per- 
fect the  soul  must  be  quiet,  neither  reasoning,  sym- 
pathizing, nor  exercising  any  faculty  whatever;  the 
most  exalted  state  of  the  spiritual  life  being  that  in 
which  one  is  wholly  oblivious  of  self,  yet  wholly  occu- 
pied with  God.  In  order  that  the  soul  may  retire  to 
its  principle  and  the  source  of  its  being,  it  must  anni- 
hilate itself,  be  changed,  transformed,  and  divinized. 
But  to  accomplish  this  the  mental  faculties  must  cease, 
the  soul  must  be  passive,  incapable  of  meditating,  or 
even  of  having  a  good  thought  of  God  Himself.  Its 
sole  function  is  passively  to  receive  the  infused  light 
of  heaven,  the  accompaniment  of  a  purely  inactive 
state  of  contemplation"  (Alzog,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  512). 


378     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Objections  were  raised  as  follows:  Such  an  indiffer- 
ent soul  would  disregard  heaven,  hell,  and  the  church; 
it  would  cease  to  practice  charity  and  would  lapse  into 
sensuality;  the  functions  of  corporeal  sense  would  be 
wholly  disregarded;  the  sensitive  soul,  the  bodily 
senses,  and  the  bodily  members  would  be  left  unregu- 
lated, and  thus  run  riot,  and  plunge  into  the  deepest 
immorality;  the  inevitable  result  would  be  pantheism. 

d.  Madame  Guy  on  {i  648-1  yiy) 

She  was  a  woman  of  high  culture  and  genuine  piety. 
Her  views  were  essentially  those  of  Molinos — com- 
plete self-abnegation.  To  her  rewards  and  punish- 
ments are  no  motives.  The  soul  in  its  enjoyment  of 
God  is  so  completely  enraptured  that  it  would  with 
utter  indifference  consent  to  be  damned.  These  ideas 
were  developed  in  her  works,  entitled:  A  Short  and 
Easy  Method  of  Prayer ;  Spiritual  Torre ?its ;  Mystical 
Works;  Commentaries  on  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

c.  Fenelo7i  {ij6i-iyi^) 

This  great  French  preacher  and  writer  was  led  to 
examine  the  works  of  Madam  Guyon.  He  was  so 
much  impressed  with  their  many  excellencies  that 
when  Bossuet  made  his  attack  on  her  in  his  book,  O71 
States  of  Prayer,  he  defended  her  in  his  Maxims  of  the 
Saitits.  Previously  Bossuet  and  Fenelon  had  been 
friends.  But  this  difference  led  to  an  estrangement 
and  a  bitter  controversy.  The  Maxims  of  the  Sai?its  was 
finally  submitted  to  Pope  Innocent  XH.  The  decision 
was  that:  "Fenelon  has  erred  by  the  excess  of  his  love 
of  God,  Bossuet  by  the  lack  of  love  for  his  neighbor." 
Fenelon  received  the  mild  condemnation  just  as  he 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  379 

was  going  into  the  pulpit  to  preach.     It  is  said  that 
with  tears  he  retracted  before  the  congregation. 

Missiojis 

The  conception  of  the  Jesuits  was  universal.  The 
world  was  to  be  brought  to  Romanism.  The  great 
missionary  was  Xavier,  the  room-mate  and  disciple  of 
Loyola.  He  carried  Romanism  to  India  and  the 
Orient,  and  soon  reported  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
converts.  He  was  not  very  severe  in  his  requirements, 
and  so  it  became  easy  for  the  heathen  to  accept  his 
teaching  without  any  real  change  of  heart. 

The  Jesuits  also  went  to  Japan  and  Mexico  and 
Paraguay;  and  established  missionary  centers  along 
the  St.  Lawrence;  and  reached  the  Indian  tribes  on 
Lake  Michigan,  and  also  the  tribes  of  what  is  now 
Illinois. 

B.    DEVELOPMENTS    IN    PROTESTANTISM 
LITERATURE 

Hagenbach:  History  of  the  Church  m  the  Eighteenth  and 
Ni?ieteenth  Centuries.     2  vols. 

That  the  people  who  had  inherited  the  results  of 
Roman  thralldom  should  at  once  understand  and  prop- 
erly use  the  still  limited  freedom  of  Protestantism  is 
not  to  be  expected.  It  would  naturally  take  a  long 
time  to  escape  entirely  from  the  externalism  of  Rome, 
and  develop  the  internalism  of  a  genuine  Christianity. 
The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  was  inade- 
quate, and  it  was  misinterpreted.  The  immediate 
results,  therefore,  upon  the  lives  of  the  people  were 
far  from  satisfactory  even  in  Luther's  day,  and  they 
did  not  rapidly  improve  in  quality  as  time  went  on. 
Yet  the  leaven  of  the  pure  Gospel  was  working.    Com- 


380    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

pulsory  celibacy  being  abolished,  there  was  an 
increased  purity  in  home  life,  and  public  decency 
began  to  be  not  only  honored  but  demanded.  Educa- 
tion made  much  progress,  both  in  the  way  of  public 
schools  and  of  universities.  These  institutions  offered 
courses  extending  over  seven  years,  and  thus  oppor- 
tunities were  given  for  the  education  of  a  Gospel  min- 
istry. 

Already  at  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  dogmatic  spirit  had  asserted  itself,  and  was  creat- 
ing a  profound  interest.  Its  usual  accompaniment  of 
spiritual  coldness  called  out  such  men  as  Weizel  and 
Bohme,  who,  not  finding  in  the  theology  of  their 
times  the  satisfaction  that  they  longed  for,  taught  the 
doctrine  of  the  inner  light. 

Another  teacher  of  wide  influence  was  Johann  Arndt 
(i 555-1621).  His  book  on  True  Christianity  presented 
a  very  exalted  ideal.  It  was  mystical,  taught  Chris- 
tian perfection,  and  intimate  fellowship  with  God. 
Near  the  end  of  his  life  Arndt  explained  in  a  letter  to 
a  friend  the  reasons  why  he  wrote  True  Christia?iity. 
They  were:  "I  desired:  (i)  To  withdraw  the  minds  of 
students  from  theological  disputes.  (2)  To  lead  Chris- 
tians from  a  dead  to  a  living  faith.  (3)  To  lead  them 
from  mere  knowledge  and  theory  to  actual  practice  of 
faith  and  godliness.  (4)  To  show  what  is  a  true 
Christian  life  which  is  one  with  true  faith.  (5)  To 
show  what  the  apostle  means  when  he  says,  'I  live; 
yet  not  I,  but  Christ,  liveth  in  me.'  " 

Efforts  were  made  at  church  union.  The  Reformed 
were  well  disposed,  but  most  of  the  Lutherans  stood 
aloof.  Mildenius  is  credited  with  the  expression: 
"In  essentials  unity;  in  non-essentials  liberty;  in  all 
things  charity." 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  381 

The  most  advanced  advocate  of  church  union  was 
George  Calixtus  (1586-1656).  Callxtus  wished  to  "sub- 
stitute the  reign  of  charity  for  the  reign  of  dogma." 
He  pleaded  for  mutual  toleration.  His  enlarged  concep- 
tion, resulting  from  thorough  study  of  church  history, 
was  wide  enough  to  include  Romanists,  Reformed  and 
Lutherans.  He  met  with  great  opposition — especially 
from  the  Wittenberg  theologians  led  byCalovius.  He 
died  branded  with  Romanism  and  infidelity,  and  his 
effort  proved  to  be  immature. 

After  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  the  Lutheran 
churches  enjoyed  freedom  from  persecution  without 
but  became  divided  within.  In  attempting  to  formu- 
late a  system  of  doctrine  which  should  embody  the  sub- 
stance of  evangelical  truth  gained  in  the  Reformation 
Lutheranism  had  gone  far  back  towards  the  spiritual 
deadness  of  Romanism.  This  condition  of  things 
could  not  be  endured  by  the  more  genuinely  spiritual 
members  of  the  church. 

We  come  then  to  the  results  as  seen  in: 

Pietism  and  Orthodoxy 

LITERATURE 

RitschL  Geschichte  des  Pietismtis.     3  vols. 

Nippold:  Neueste  Kirchengeschichte.     3  vols. 

Hurst:  History  of  Rationalism.     Chaps.  LHL 

Good:  History  of  the  Reformed  Churches  ifi  Germa?iy. 
Allof  Bk.IV. 

Walrond:  Philip  James  Spe?ier. 

Pietism  has  been  called  a  revolt  of  the  heart  against 
the  encroachments  of.  the  head.  Events  had  been 
tending  in  this  direction  for  many  years.  Finally  a 
great  leader  appeared   in  Philip  James  Spener  (1635- 


382    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

1705).  Spener  was  educated  at  Strasburg;  became  a 
leading  clergyman  at  Frankfort  in  1666;  court  preacher 
at  Dresden  in  1686;  "fell  into  disgrace"  because  he 
reproached  the  king  for  drunkenness;  and  was 
appointed  Provost  at  Berlin  in  i6gi. 

While  he  was  at  Frankfort  he  became  deeply 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  sermons  of  the  day 
were  not  reaching  the  people.  They  were  excessively 
dogmatic,  and  they  were  utterly  intolerant  towards 
those  who  differed  from  them.  In  his  own  work  he 
sought  the  simplicity  of  the  language  and  ideas  of  the 
Bible,  and  avoided  controversy.  He  revived  the  cate- 
chetical exercises  which  had  fallen  into  disuse  and 
made  them  thrill  with  new  life. 

Convinced  that  in  addition  to  the  public  services 
there  should  be  private  meetings  for  prayer  and  other 
religious  exercises,  he  began  in  1670  to  hold  such 
meetings  in  his  own  house.  These  meetings  were  the 
beginning  of  the  Collegia  Pietatis.  At  first  Spener 
repeated  his  sermons,  and  explained  passages  from  the 
New  Testament.  There  was  also  an  opportunity  for 
free  discussion.  After  1675  they  used  only  the  Bible 
in  these  meetings.  In  1675  ^^  published  his  Pia  Desi- 
dcria.  He  described  the  moral  condition  of  the 
Evangelical  church  "in  respect  to  the  secular  author- 
ities, the  clergy,  and  domestic  life";  claimed  that 
improvement  was  demanded;  and  that  it  was  to  come 
through  a  better  knowledge  of  the  Bible.  The  chief 
difficulty  lay  with  the  clergy.  With  them  religion 
had  become  a  mere  matter  of  understanding.  Their 
business  was  to  defend  orthodoxy.  They  knew  noth- 
ing of  personal  piety,  and  they  could  lead  the  people 
no  higher  than  they  had  gone  themselves.  He 
desired,  therefore,  a  reformation  in  theological  educa- 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  383 

tion.  What  young  men  in  preparation  for  the  ministry 
needed  before  everything  else  was  personal  piety. 
Theology  was  something  different  from  and  far  above 
philosophy.  If  such  a  reformation  could  take  place  in 
the  clergy,  it  would  follow  in  all  the  walks  of  life. 
Luther's  doctrine  of  the  priesthood  of  all  believers  was 
true,  but  the  church  must  have  leaders. 

Pia  Desideria  attracted  much  attention.  Collegia 
Pietatis  were  introduced  in  other  places,  and  Spener 
soon  had  a  large  following.  When  he  went  to  Dres- 
den he  found  a  stronghold  of  orthodoxy,  and  his 
influence  was  large.  He  set  about  the  reform  of  theo- 
logical instruction  in  the  universities.  It  seems  impos- 
sible that  at  Leipsic  no  lectures  on  exegesis  had  been 
given  for  years,  yet  it  was  so.  But  Spener  caused 
such  lectures  to  be  resumed.  The  lecturers  were 
Francke,  Schade,  and  Anton.  They  lectured  in  Ger- 
man. Their  object  was  not  learned  exposition,  but 
simply  to  bring  out  the  spiritual  and  practical  teach- 
ings of  the  Scriptures.  The  lectures  were  very  pop- 
ular, being  attended  both  by  students  and  citizens. 

But  the  opposition  was  soon  very  strong  and  the 
lecturers  were  obliged  to  leave  Leipsic.  They  went  to 
the  newly-founded  University  of  Halle,  where  the 
theological  faculty  was  organized  by  Spener.  Halle 
soon  became  the  center  of  the  pietistic  movement. 

It  was  at  Halle  that  Francke  founded  the  celebrated 
Orphan  House.  At  first  the  meetings  were  held  in  his 
own  house,  but  in  1698  the  foundations  were  laid  for  the 
vast  group  of  buildings  which  are  a  wonder  even 
to-day.  The  Orphan  House  was  a  great  aid  in  the 
spiritual  and  intellectual  development  of  Germany. 

Two  parties  now  arose  within  the  Lutheran  body. 
The  first  was  the  pietists,  whose  antecedents  were  Cal- 


384    A  ShoH  History   of  the  Christian  Church 

vinistic,  with  their  base  at  Halle.     The  second  was  the 
orthodox,  having  their  center  at  Wittenberg. 

A  comparison  of  pietism  and  orthodoxy  shows  that 
the  pietists  put  the  emphasis  on  the  regeneration  of 
the  heart  by  the  grace  of  God.  The  necessary  result 
is  fruit  as  seen  in  good  works.  The  pietists  main- 
tained that  certain  current  expressions  which  had  been 
abused  should  be  abandoned.  Among  these  was  the 
one  that,  "Good  works  are  not  necessary  for  salvation, 
that  in  the  act  of  justification  faith  alone  is  con- 
cerned." To  them  the  Scriptures  were  the  only  source 
of  faith  and  practice.  The  fine  distinctions  of  the 
theologians  counted  for  little.  If  the  Bible  is  to  be 
understood  the  mind  must  be  illuminated  by  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  encroachments  of  philosophy  upon 
theology  were  largely  responsible  for  the  lamentable 
condition  of  society.  The  entire  life  in  all  its  phases 
should  be  a  perpetual  worship  of  God.  Amusements 
such  as  dancing,  card-playing,  theater-going  and  jest- 
ing were  condemned. 

Orthodoxy,  on  the  other  hand,  had  become  entirely 
speculative,  as  dead  and  as  barren  as  the  scholasticism 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Indeed,  it  had  become  a  new 
scholasticism.  It  accordingly  stood  in  almost  direct 
opposition  to  nearly  every  principle  that  pietism  stood 
for. 

Results  of  the  Pietistic  Movement 

When  such  movements  arise  and  carry  so  many  wise 
and  thoughtful  people  with  them  it  is  always  true  that 
they  emphasize  great  but  neglected  elements  of  truth. 
It  also  invariably  happens  that  truths  equally  impor- 
tant on  the  opposite  side  are  overlooked  and  the  new 
movement  becomes  as  extreme  in  its  way  as  the  side 
against  which  it  has  revolted.     But  the  results  of  the 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  385 

two  extremes  meeting  is  a  fresh  contribution  to 
progress.  And  so  the  results  of  pietism  are  marked 
and  far-reaching. 

1.  Without  intending  it  to  be  so,  pietism  gave  an 
impulse  to  the  scientific  study  of  the  Scriptures. 
This  came  about  through  the  great  emphasis  which  it 
put  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  Biblical  languages. 

2.  Unintentionally,  also,  the  pietists  developed 
moderation  in  theology.  Whether  they  wished  to  do 
so  or  not,  theologians  were  compelled  to  see  that 
theology  had  become  too  speculative,  and  conse- 
quently barren  of  results  in  the  lives  of  the  people. 
And  so,  without  yielding  too  much  to  the  emotional 
element,  they  at  last  found  themselves  recognizing  the 
merits  and  defects  of  both  sides.  This  placed  them  on 
a  middle  ground. 

3.  It  awakened  a  new  interest  in  church  history. 
Gottfried  Arnold,  one  of  the  extreme  pietists,  wrote  a 
church  history.  This  called  out  numerous  replies — 
notably  the  careful  and  scholarly  work  of  Mosheim. 

4.  The  Herrnhutters.*  This  sect  was  a  practical 
outcome  of  the  spirit  of  pietism.  They  began  with  an 
association  of  families  who  came  together  on  the 
estate  of  Count  Louis  von  Zinzendorf  (1700-1760). 
His  residence  was  the  Hutberg,  or  Watch  Hill. 
These  families  built  their  residences  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill  in  1722.  The  name  was  afterwards  changed  to 
Herrnhut,  or  the  Watch  of  the  Lord — Unter  der  Hut  des 
Herrn.  The  founding  of  a  new  sect  was  farthest  from 
Zinzendorf's  thought.  Members  were  received  from  all 
the  Protestant  churches,  and  they  were  not  asked  to 
leave  their  churches. 

The  company  was  mixed,  but  Zinzendorf  unified  it 

*  See  Hamilton:  A  History  of  the  Moravian  Church. 


386    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

according  to  a  constitution  called  the  Fundamental 
Articles.  There  were  three  principal  classes — the 
Moravians,  the  Reformed,  and  the  Lutheram — each  of 
which  had  equal  rights  in  the  general  association. 

There  was  one  central  thought  that  dominated  the 
whole  community — "intimate  union  with  the  Saviour." 
His  death  upon  the  cross  was  their  one  certainty  and 
hope — to  Him  they  looked  for  guidance.  Zinzendorf 
said:  "God  the  Father  is  not  directly  our  Father,  but 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  our  real  Father;  we  have  to 
do  only  with  the  Son." 

They  cared  nothing  for  the  distinctions  of  the  sys- 
tematic theologians,  and  they  condemned  the  method 
of  Bible  study  which  sought  for  doctrines.  "The 
Bible,"  they  said,  "is  obscure,  no  human  learning  can 
interpret  it,  but  only  the  Spirit  who  illuminated  the 
sacred  writers  themselves." 

5.  Great  missionary  activity.  The  Moravians  were 
fired  with  a  great  zeal  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel. 
They  extended  their  influence  to  Greenland,  the  West 
Indies,  America  and  Africa.  "There  is,"  says 
Scudder,  "scarcely  a  country  where  the  Moravians 
have  not  attempted  to  gain  a  foothold,  and  it  is  the 
marvel  and  admiration  of  the  church  to-day  that  a 
body  weak  in  numbers,  education,  and  wealth,  should 
accomplish  so  great  a  work"  {Nineteen  Ce?ittiries  of 
Missions,  p.  67). 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  pietistic  movement 
called  out  strenuous  opposition.  It  was  led  by  such 
men  as  Bengel  and  Baumgarten.  But  that  it  was  very 
helpful  to  evangelical   Christianity  cannot  be  doubted. 

We  are  to  see  further  results  in  the  great  Methodist 
revival  in  England,  and  in  the  religious  awakening  in 
America. 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  387 

The  Period  of  I?ivesHgatio?i  and  Reco?istncction 

For  many  years  after  Luther  and  Calvin  had  passed 
away  Protestant  thought  rested  on  the  results  attained. 
But  by  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  began 
to  be  evident  that  all  the  problems  were  not  yet 
solved,  and  that  the  existing  condition  of  thought  was 
far  from  satisfactory.  The  spirit  of  aggressiveness 
accordingly  began  to  manifest  itself.  This  manifesta- 
tion is  seen  in  the  realms  of  philosophy,  literature 
and  theology.  The  new  activity  in  all  these  lines  has 
its  basis  in  the  general  spirit  of  the  age,  and  the  rela- 
tions between  the  different  spheres  are  organic. 
Thought  is  cosmopolitan,  and  refuses  to  be  limited  by 
systems,  creeds,  or  national  boundaries.  That  the 
world  is  ready  for  a  mighty  advance  movement  is  seen: 

a.  In  Philosophy 
I.  Descartes  {ijg6-i6jo) 

Modern  philosophy  on  the  continent  began  with 
Descartes.  From  the  dates  given  it  is  seen  that  the 
period  of  his  literary  activity  is  almost  identical  with 
that  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  We  have  seen  that 
Anselm's  principle  was  Credo  ut  Intelligam.  Realizing 
that  all  our  knowledge  having  come  to  us  through  the 
senses  is  somewhat  vitiated,  Descartes  takes  for  his 
principle:  Dubito  itt  Intelligam — I  doubt  in  order  that  I 
may  know.  His  universal  doubt  when  investigated  led 
to  his  formula,  Cogito,  ergo  sum,  not  as  an  inference  but 
as  a  self-evident  proposition.  He  then  gets  back  the 
whole  constitution  of  the  nature  of  spirit;  the  universal 
rule  of  certainty;  and  the  knowledge  of  God — the 
clearest  of  all  ideas.     The  results  of  Descartes' s  investi- 


388    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

gation  are:  God  the  Absolute;  and  body  the  extended 
substance.  He  has  thus  placed  mind  and  matter  in 
complete  separation,  and  left  no  satisfactory  solution 
as  to  how  they  are  to  get  together.  The  consequences 
are  to  be  momentous. 

2.    The  Occasionalists 

Geuliux  (1625-1669)  took  up  the  problem.  Accord- 
ing to  him  the  soul  does  not  act  directly  upon  the 
body,  nor  the  body  directly  on  the  soul.  God  alone 
conforms  the  inner  to  the  outer.  "On  occasioii  of  my 
will  God  moves  my  body.  On  occasiofi  of  an  affection 
of  my  body  God  excites  an  idea  in  my  mind." 

Malebranche  (1638-1715)  raised  the  question:  How 
does  the  soul  attain  a  knowledge  of  the  external 
world?  The  answer  is:  Only  by  seeing  things  in  a 
third  something  that  is  above  the  antithesis — God. 
Thus  these  two  philosophers  overcome  the  dualism  by 
occasionalism. 

This  unsatisfactory  condition  of  things  cannot  last. 
Maybe,  after  all,  there  is  one  substance.  Maybe  God 
is  all;  maybe  mind  is  all;  maybe  matter  is  all — 
pantheism,  idealism,  materialism. 

J.   Spi7wza  {i6j2-i6'/'/) 

According  to  Spinoza  the  Infinite  Being  is  one  sim- 
ple substance.  Substantial  existence  belongs  to 
nothing  finite.  The  Infinite  Being  has  two  attributes — 
thought  and  extension.  Hence  we  have  a  double 
theophany — mind  and  material  things.  With  Spinoz- 
ism,  personality,  freedom,  design,  final  causes,  all 
vanish. 

"We  now  stand,"  says  Schwegler,  "by  a  knot  point, 
a   ganglion,   a  commissure,   in   the  onward  course  of 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  389 

philosophy.  Descartes  had  demonstrated  the  antithe- 
sis of  thought  and  existence,  of  mind  and  matter, 
and  postulated  a  principle  of  resolution  for  it."  It 
failed  with  him  and  his  immediate  followers.  Spinoza 
abandoned  it  and  ended  in  pantheism,  but  is  still 
enchained  in  the  Cartesian  presuppositions  of  extensio?i 
and  thought.  The  dualism  still  remains.  The  only 
alternative  is  in  the  annihilation  of  one  of  the  sides. 
Either  the  ideal  must  be  explained  from  the  material, 
or  the  material  must  be  explained  from  the  ideal. 
Since  neither  side  could  prevail  we  have  the  contem- 
poraneous development  of  materialism  and   idealism. 

(/)    Materialism 
John  Locke  {i6j2-iyo4) 

England  was  the  land  of  Occam,  Roger  and  Francis 
Bacon.  These  men  had  already  exemplified  the 
peculiarity  of  the  English  mind,  which  is  positiveness 
as  opposed  to  mysticism  or  speculation.  With  Locke 
the  age  of  criticism  was  fully  ushered  in,  and  thought 
receives  an  impetus  and  direction  which  continue  to 
our  own  days.  Locke's  great  contention  was  against 
innate  ideas.  The  sources  of  our  knowledge  are 
se?isatio?i  and  reflectio7i. 

Through  Voltaire  the  philosophy  of  Locke  was 
introduced  into  France  and  resulted  in  absolute  sensa- 
tionalism. 

Condillac  (1715-1780)  rejected  Locke's  second 
source  of  knowledge — reflectio?i. 

La  Mettrie  (1709-1751),  getting  his  suggestion  from 
Descartes's  Treatise  on  the  Passions  of  the  Soul,  advanced 
from  Descartes's  animal-machine  to  the  man-machine, 
and  then  unhesitatingly  to  the  position  that,  "Physical 


390     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

enjoyment  is  the  chief  end  of  man."  "The  world 
will  nev^er  be  happy  until  atheism  is  universal." 
"At  death  all  is  up — Moral:  Let  us  enjoy  while  we 
can,  and  never  throw  a  chance  away." 

The  Encyclopedia  was  one  of  the  fullest  expressions 
of  the  materialism  of  France.  It  was  edited  by 
Diderot  (1713-1784). 

{2)    The  Illumination 

The  general  features,  especially  of  the  last  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  are  expressed  in  the  word 
"Illumination" — Atifkldrung.  The  causes  of  this  state 
of  society  were:  The  discoveries  in  physical  science; 
the  great  awakening  in  philosoph}^  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Descartes  and  Locke;  the  determination  of 
men  to  be  free  from  the  power  of  tradition. 

The  Illumination  sought  to  discover  "the  eternal, 
the  rational,  the  inherent  in  human  nature,  and  the 
nature  of  things."  "A  natural  law,  a  natural  society, 
and  a  natural  religion  shone  as  the  great  ideals  on  the 
intellectual  horizon,  and  carried  away  the  world  of  the 
eighteenth  century  in  a  movement  of  passionate 
endeavor.  The  Illumination  was  naturalistic  to  the 
core,  but  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  rise  of  modern 
society"  (Sohm:   O.  C.  //.,  p.  195). 

(j)  Idealism 

If  the  movement  of  thought  in  England  and  France 
was  towards  materialism,  in  Germany  it  was  towards 
idealism.  If  in  France  "spirit  came  to  be  regarded  as 
nothing  but  finer  matter,"  in  Germany  matter  came  to 
be  regarded  as  only  "crassified  spirit,"  or,  as  Leibnitz 
puts  it,  "confused  ideation." 

The  course  of  the  development  will  be  best  indicated 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  391 

by  mentioning  the  great  men  who  represent  its  several 
stages. 

The  first  of  these  great  men  is  Leibnitz  (1696-1716). 

His  general  positions  are:  The  essential  mark  of 
substance  is  activity;  substance  is  individual — a 
monad;  there  is  a  plurality  of  monads;  the  universe  is 
made  up  of  monads  which  are  without  extension  or 
division — just  the  opposite  of  the  atoms  of  the  mate- 
rialist; each  monad  is  independent  of  all,  yet  related 
to  all;  each  monad  is  a  mirror  of  the  universe;  there  is 
a  pre-established  harmony  of  the  monads;  God  is  the 
sufficient  reason  for  all  the  monads. 

But  the  supreme  test  came  when  he  attempted  to 
bring  his  theism  and  his  monadology  into  union.  In 
this  he  was  not  successful. 

The  ideas  of  Leibnitz  were  systematized  by  Christian 
Wolf  (1679-1754),  professor  in  the  University  of  Halle. 
Wolf  claimed  for  philosophy  all  knowledge,  and  so 
attempted  an  encyclopedia  of  all  .knowledge  in  the 
highest  sense  of  the  word;  made  philosophical  method 
a  subject  of  study;   "made  philosophy  talk  German." 

Wolf  became  extremely  popular.  His  ideas  went 
into  the  pulpit,  and  the  schools  and  society.  But  he 
came  into  conflict  with  the  pietists.  They  worked 
through  Frederick  William  L,  whose  prejudice  against 
the  learned  class  was  well  known,  and  whose  weakness 
for  tall  soldiers  was  utilized.  "Soldiers  might  take  it 
into  their  heads  that  they  were  pre-established  or  fore- 
ordained to  desert."  Wolf  was  given  forty-eight  hours 
to  leave  Halle — or  take  the  halter. 

We  have  seen  the  stream  of  philosophy  divide  and 
flow  in  separate  channels.  In  the  one  case  there  was 
danger  that  it  would  lose  itself  in  the  soil;  in  the 
other,  that  it  would  evaporate  and  become  ethereal  ized. 


392    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

There  was  need  of  some  transcendent  genius  who  could 
unite  the  diverging  streams. 

Such  a  man  was  Immanuel  Kant  (1724-1804).  He 
was  kindly  disposed  towards  all  sides,  and  sought  to 
harmonize  all  thought. 

The  two  factors  in  his  philosophy  were  the  subject 
which  knows  and  the  object  which  is  known  or  the 
origin  of  our  experience.  In  the  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason  we  learn  that  we  know  only  appearances — not 
things  in  themselves;  experience  alone  is  our  field  of 
knowledge,  a  science  of  the  unconditioned  is  not  pos- 
sible; when  we  attempt  it  we  involve  ourselves  in  the 
greatest  contradictions.  Therefore  knowledge  of 
God,  free-will  and  immortality  does  not  exist  for 
criticism. 

But  in  the  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  the  structure 
that  has  been  destroyed  is  rebuilt  upon  the  solid  foun- 
dation of  the  categorical  imperative — the  moral  law 
within  us.  From  this  he  argues  the  existence  of  God, 
the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  the  immortality  of  the 
soul. 

"Two  things  there  are,"  says  Kant  in  the  Kritik  der 
praktische?i  Vernunft  {Beschluss),  "which,  the  oftener  and 
the  more  steadfastly  we  consider,  fill  the  mind  with  an 
ever  new  and  ever  rising  admiration  and  reverence: 
the  starry  heaven  above,  tlie  moral  law  within.  Of 
neither  am  I  compelled  to  seek  out  the  reality,  as 
veiled  in  darkness,  or  only  to  conjecture  the  possi- 
bility, as  beyond  the  hemisphere  of  my  knowledge. 
Both  1  contemplate  lying  clear  before  me,  and  connect 
both  immediately  with  my  consciousness  of  existence. 
The  one  departs  from  the  place  I  occupy  in  the  outer 
world  of  sense;  expands  beyond  the  bounds  of  imag- 
ination, this  connection  of  my  body  with  worlds  rising 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  393 

beyond  worlds,  and  system  blending  into  system;  and 
protends  it  also  into  the  illimitable  times  of  their 
periodic  movement — to  its  commencement  and  per- 
petuity. The  other  departs  from  my  invisible  self, 
from  my  personality;  and  represents  me  in  a  world, 
truly  infinite,  indeed,  but  whose  infinity  can  be  tracked 
out  only  by  the  intellect;  with  which  also  my  connec- 
tion, unlike  the  fortuitous  relation  in  which  I  stand  to 
worlds  of  sense,  I  am  compelled  to  recognize  as  uni- 
versal and  necessary." 

Kant  was  indeed  an  individualist,  but  with  him  the 
individual  is  universal.  This  is  not  a  contradiction. 
"For  a  knowing  subject,  for  whom  the  whole  finite 
world,  including  his  own  finite  existence,  is  an  object, 
cannot  himself  be  comprehended  in  that  world  as 
limited  by  any  of  its  conditions.  As  there  can  be  no 
world  of  objects  except  for  a  self,  it  is  impossible  that 
such  a  self  should  be  merely  one  of  these  objects. 
Thus,  as  knowing,  or  capable  of  knowing,  all  things, 
man  cannot  be  identified  with  any  of  them;  or  if,  from 
one  point  of  view,  as  an  individual  he  is  identified,  yet 
he  has  within  him  a  universal  principle  that  carries  him 
beyond  the  limits  of  his  personality.  And  this  con- 
trast shows  itself  also  in  his  practical  life."  Man 
knows  that  despite  all  the  impulses  of  passion  he  ought 
to  obey  the  moral  law — and  therefore  he  knows  that  he 
ca?i  obey  it.  Thus  in  Kant  the  eighteenth  century 
individualism  which  began  by  depressing  man  ends  by 
exalting  him.  The  animal  part  of  his  nature  is  transi- 
tory. But  as  a  member  of  the  intelligible  world  he  is 
"a  spectator  of  all  time  and  all  existence,  and  gifted 
with  the  absolute  freedom  of  a  will  which  could  be 
determined  by  nothing  but  itself."* 

*See  Caird:  Progress  of  the  Century,  pp.  148-149. 


394    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  influence  of  Kant  on  theology  at  once  became 
overwhelming,  and  it  continues  to  our  own  times. 
He  came  out  a  practical  idealist. 

In  Fichte  (1765-1814)  Kant's  practical  idealism 
became  subjective  idealism.  Kant  had  taught  that  we 
can  know  only  phenomena — not  the  thing  in  itself. 
The  thing  in  itself  is  the  only  externality  beyond  the 
reach  of  cognition.  With  Fichte  the  thing  in  itself 
becomes  a  thought,  a  principle  of  causation,  a  subject. 
The  subject  proceeds  out  from  itself,  and  its  limita- 
tions become  the  objects  of  its  contemplation.  The 
source  of  all  being  is  the  impersonal  ego.  Sensation 
has  nothing  to  do  with  knowledge  which  is  the  simple 
creation  of  the  ego.  The  only  method,  therefore,  is 
the  aprioristic  method.  For  example,  a  philosophy 
of  history  is  not  concerned  with  the  facts  of  history. 
The  only  science  is  the  science  of  the  ego.  The  per- 
sonality of  God  is  denied  because  personality  involves 
limitation.  In  the  place  of  God,  Fichte  puts  the  moral 
order  of  the  world.  Ethics  and  religion  are  identical. 
Fichte  was  accused  of  atheism,  and  resigned  his  pro- 
fessorship at  Jena  in  1799.  He  afterwards  received  an 
appointment  at  Berlin  which  he  filled  until  his  death. 

d.   hi  Literature 

In  the  eighteenth  century  theology  and  literature 
were  not  widely  separated.  As  in  philosophy  so  in 
literature  we  have  an  epoch-making  period  in  Ger- 
many. New  conceptions  of  history  were  introduced 
by  Niebuhr;  learning  received  a  powerful  impulse 
through  Winkelmann  and  Heyne;  the  literary  spirit 
was  quickened  by  the  writings  of  Von  Hagedow  and  Von 
Haller;  the  Messiah  of  Clopstock  raised  him  to  a  high 
position    among  the   literary  men  of  his  time;    Wie- 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  395 

land's  Obero7i  and  Agathon  were  great   contributions  to 
poetry  and  prose. 

/.  Lessing  {iy2g-i'j8i')'^ 

Lessing's  father  was  a  devout  Lutheran  minister. 
It  was  the  desire  of  his  parents  that  he  might  enter  the 
ministry.  But  the  bent  of  his  mind  was  in  another 
direction.  At  Leipsic  he  heard  Ernesti,  met  Mylius, 
a  freethinker,  and  became  the  associate  of  theatrical 
players.  He  went  to  Berlin,  which  was  notorious  for 
its  freethinking  under  Frederick  II.  Here  he  came 
into  contact  with  illuminism  which  was  entirely  con- 
genial to  him. 

After  v^aried  experiences  he  became  librarian  of  the 
ducal  library  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1770.  He  began  to 
give  the  world  its  treasures — old  and  new.  In  1774  he 
entered  upon  the  publication  of  the  Wolfenbuttel  Frag- 
ments—  probably  the  work  of  a  Hamburg  school 
teacher  twenty  years  before.  In  these  Fragments  the 
credibility  of  the  Gospels  is  attacked.  The  authors 
were  cunning  deceivers  who  had  a  secret  plan.  This  is 
especially  claimed  in  the  Fragment  on  the  Purpose  of 
Jesus  and  His  Disciples,  vjWxch  appeared  in  1777.  The 
purpose  of  Jesus  was:  "To  reform  Judaism,  and  in 
spite  of  the  universal  Roman  supremacy  to  establish 
an  earthly  Messianic  kingdom.  .  .  .  When  the  plan 
failed  the  disciples  attributed  a  spiritual  meaning  to 
the  doctrine  of  God's  kingdom  and  invented  also  the 
history  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus.  .  .  .  The  whole 
matter  is  made  the  result  of  a  cold  and  cunning  calcu- 
lation." 

The  publication  of  this  pamphlet  created  widespread 
anxiety  among  the   earnest   and   thoughtful.       If   the 

*See  Davidson:  Les sins'  and  the  New  Hiima7iism. 


396    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

positions  maintained  in  the  Fragment  were  true,  young 
men  who  were  preparing  for  the  ministry  could  not 
conscientiously  continue  their  preparation.  The  sin- 
cerity of  theologians  was  doubted.  Lessing  was 
attacked  by  pastor  Goetz  of  Hamburg,  who  was  far 
below  him  in  ability,  and  who  was  worsted  in  the  con- 
flict. Lessing  made  the  comparison  of  the  shepherd 
and  the  plant  collector.  The  shepherd  must  lead  and 
guard  his  sheep,  but  the  plant  collector  must  bring  all 
kinds  of  plants  within  the  circle  of  science.  Lessing 
had  no  sympathy  with  the  weak,  and  they  were  not  to 
be  considered  in  the  advancement  of  science.  He  was 
thus  utterly  reckless  in  his  statements,  as  when  he 
said:  "If  truth  were  offered  me  on  one  hand  and  the 
search  for  truth  on  the  other,  I  would  choose  the 
search  after  truth."  He  forgot  that,  "Truth  is  the 
common  blessing  of  all.  That  it  elevates  the  lowest 
people  above  the  narrow  horizon  of  their  earthly  limi- 
tations and  their  earthly  grief.  That  it  keeps  the 
wisest  man  humble,  and  teaches  him  to  be  silent 
and  adore  where  the  horizon  of  his  understanding 
ceases." 

Two  of  Lessing's  most  characteristic  works  are 
Nathan  the  Wise,  and  The  Education  of  the  Htonan  Race. 

2.  Basedow  {i'/2j-iygo) 

Basedow  was  an  educational  reformer.  His  teacher 
was  Reimarus.  He  was  much  interested  in  the  theo- 
logical controversies,  and  had  views  which  he  incor- 
porated in  his  educational  theories.  Basedow  had  the 
gift  of  simplifying  difficult  subjects  and  bringing  them 
within  the  comprehension  of  children.  One  of  his 
fundamental  pedagogical  principles  was  that:  "A 
child  should  not  become  acquainted  with  the  name  of 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  397 

God  until  he  is  ten  years  old.  He  should  not  be  intro- 
duced to  a  knowledge  of  Christianity  until  he  is  four- 
teen years  old."  He  sought  to  bring  out  the  entire 
natural  and  universal  traits  of  human  nature.  In  him 
we  have  a  separation  of  humanity  and  Christianity. 
He  established  a  school  in  Dessau  known  as  Philan- 
thropin.  The  consequences  of  Basedow's  teaching 
were  momentous. 

J.  Nicolai  {bor?i  lyjj) 

Another  side  of  the  new  skepticism  was  promoted 
by  Nicolai,  who  sought  the  diffusion  of  literature 
through  the  printing  press.  He  was  born  in  Berlin, 
and  received  a  part  of  his  education  at  the  Orphan 
House  at  Halle.  Nicolai's  experiences  here  were  far 
from  agreeable.  He  says:  "By  preaching  religion 
almost  every  hour,  the  morality  of  the  institution  sank 
very  low."  As  an  instance  of  the  limited  range  of  the 
studies  he  mentions  that  the  students  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  any  Greek  book  except  the  New  Testament. 

When  he  returned  to  Berlin  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Lessing  and  Mendelssohn,  and  gave  himself 
up  to  literary  labors. 

In  connection  with  these  he  published  the  Library  of 
Belles-Lettrcs  and  Sciences  after  1757.  This  was  followed 
by  the  Universal  German  Library  —  commenced  in 
1765.  Beginning  with  about  fifty  writers,  it  increased 
the  number  to  one  hundred  and  thirty.  It  was  a  free 
lance,  and  through  it  every  form  of  rationalism  and 
skepticism  found  the  freest  expression.  In  its  sweep- 
ing denunciations  not  only  were  the  pietists  included 
but  even  Goethe,  Kant,  and  Fichte.  The  Universal 
Ger?na?i  Library  had  an  extensive  circulation  and 
brought  large  financial  returns  to  its  promoters. 


398     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

c.  In  Theology 

In  the  general  upheaval  theology  came  in  for  its  full 
share.  Investigation  was  the  order  of  the  day,  and 
reconstruction  always  follows  investigation.  Theology 
was  mightily  influenced  by  the  revolutions  that  took 
place  in  philosophy  and  literature. 

The  great  men  through  whom  the  new  spirit  found 
expression  were: 

7.  Johann  August  Erne sti  {lyoy-iySi) 

Ernesti  was  a  distinguished  classical  scholar  who 
brought  his  learning  to  bear  upon  New  Testament 
interpretation.  His  fundamental  principle  was  that: 
"The  Bible  must  be  rigidly  examined  according  to  its 
own  language,  and  must  not  be  bribed  by  the  authority 
of  the  church,  nor  by  feeling,  nor  by  allegorizing 
fancy,  nor  by  any  system  of  philosophy."  The  rigid 
application  of  this  principle  made  him  the  pioneer  of 
strict  grammatical  interpretation. 

Ernesti  did  not  mean  to  break  with  the  church. 
His  carefulness  made  him  moderate,  and  his  general 
influence  was  wholesome.  As  we  have  seen,  Lessing 
heard  him  at  Leipsic. 

2.  Joharm  Salomo  Semler  (i'/2yi'/gi) 

Semler  was  educated  at  the  Orphan  House  at  Halle. 
Unlike  Nicolai  he  found  the  pietistic  principles  con- 
genial to  his  nature,  and  it  was  only  later  on  in  his 
career  that,  under  the  influence  of  Baumgarten,  he 
became  liberalized  in  his  views.  He  was  appointed 
professor  at  Halle  in  1752. 

The  qualities  of  Semler's  mind  were  diligence, 
retentiveness,     close     observation,     keen    perception, 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  399 

aggressiveness,  dogmatism.  His  mind  was  not  con- 
structive. His  field  was  Biblical  literature  and  church 
history.  That  he  might  be  unbiased  in  his  con- 
clusions, he  always  went  back  to  original  sources. 

The  result  was  great  enthusiasm  among  his  students, 
and  a  burning  zeal  for  investigation.  His  broad 
knowledge  of  history  made  him  sympathetic  towards 
all  the  great  systems  of  the  past.  He  said:  "Inward 
piety,  and  not  the  doctrine  makes  the  Christian." 
The  first  he  called  private  religion,  the  second  public 
religion,  which  is  necessary  since  there  must  be  some 
outward  standard  of  appeal. 

J.  Joha7i7i  David  Michaelis  (^lyiy-iygi) 

Michaelis,  who  was  a  professor  at  Gottingen,  was  an 
oriental  scholar.  His  learning  in  this  field  enabled 
him  to  make  important  contributions  to  the  historical 
side  of  Biblical  criticism  and  interpretation. 

Other  men  of  distinction  were:  Mosheim,  the  church 
historian  at  Gottingen  (1694-1775);  Griesbach  at  Jena, 
New  Testament  textual  critic  (1745-1812);  Eichhorn 
at  Jena  and  afterwards  at  Gottingen  (1752-1827). 
Eichhorn  was  a  somewhat  erratic  genius  who  made 
substantial  contributions  to  Biblical  criticism  and  had 
wide  influence. 

This  new  spirit  of  investigation  and  readjustment 
created  a  profound  impression.  It  manifested  itself, 
as  we  have  seen,  in  philosophy,  in  literature  and  in 
theology  —  where  greater  thoroughness  in  Biblical 
exegesis  and  church  history  were  the  crowning  achieve- 
ments. 

That  the  traditional  theology  would  yield  at  once  to 
the  new  demands  was  not  to  be  expected.  And  yet 
the  old   theologians  found   themselves  facing  one  of 


400    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

two  alternatives.  Either  the  old  doctrines  must  be 
surrendered  entirely,  or  they  must  be  revised  and 
restated.  The  latter  alternative  was  generally 
accepted,  and  there  were  two  excellent  results — the 
post-reformation  scholasticism  was  destroyed,  and 
applied  Christianity  received  a  new  impulse. 

Among  the  leading  theologians  who  were  deeply 
moved  by  the  new  spirit  without  yielding  entirely 
were  Seiler  of  Erlangen,  Doderlein  of  Jena,  and 
Morus  of  Leipsic.  Morus  was  the  most  radical  of  the 
three.  He  gave  up  several  doctrines  which  he 
thought  a  strict  exegesis  would  not  yield.  Among 
them  were  the  imputation  of  Adam's  sin;  the  ubiquity 
of  Christ's  human  nature.  The  eternity  of  future  pun- 
ishment he  thought  was  doubtful. 

Reaction  under  Frederick  William  II. 

Frederick  William  II.  had  none  of  the  strong  points 
of  his  father.  He  was  even  more  opposed  to  educa- 
tion than  his  father.  From  him  came  the  greatest 
menace  to  free  inquiry.  He  assumed  the  government 
with  the  firm  purpose  of  eradicating  innovations  in 
religion.  His  minister  was  Wolner,  who  had  been  a 
preacher.  Frederick  issued  an  edict  in  1788  command- 
ing all  preachers  to  return  to  orthodoxy.  The  penalty 
for  failure  to  do  so  was  to  be  removal  from  office.  In 
order  that  candidates  for  the  ministry  might  be  prop- 
erly tested,  an  Immediate  Co?n?nissio?i  was  constituted, 
and  a  scheme  of  examinations  was  prepared.  Profes- 
sors were  warned  to  change  the  tone  of  their  instruc- 
tions. Two  commissioners,  Hermas  and  Hilmer, 
made  a  tour  of  visitation  of  the  schools  and  churches 
to  purge  them  of  heterodoxy.  They  were  driven  out 
of  Halle  by  the  students  in  1795. 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  401 

The  difficulty  with  Frederick's  movement  was  that  it 
went  straight  in  the  face  of  an  intelligent  public  opin- 
ion, and  so  it  could  not  be  carried  out.  It  died  out 
immediately  after  the  death  of  Frederick  in  1797. 

Swedenborgianism 

On  the  whole,  and  considered  in  itself,  the  eight- 
eenth century  was  one  of  spiritual  decadence  on  the 
continent.  The  conditions  at  such  a  time  are  always 
favorable  to  the  development  of  mystical  systems. 
The  system  of  this  kind  especially  deserving  of  men- 
tion is  that  of  Immanuel  Swedenborg  (1688-1772). 
He  was  a  Swedish  scientist  who,  becoming  interested 
in  religion,  gave  up  his  scientific  pursuits,  went  to 
London  and  worked  out  his  system  which  is  found  in 
the  Arcana  Ccelestia. 

The  French  Revolution 

The  eighteenth  century  closes  on  the  continent  with 
one  of  the  greatest  convulsions  in  history.  Many 
causes  had  led  up  to  it.  Among  these  are  the  long- 
continued  abuse  of  the  peasants  with  a  resulting  con- 
dition of  wretchedness;  the  shameless  and  heartless 
corruption  of  the  clergy  and  nobility;  the  general 
diffusion  of  the  materialistic  philosophy  of  the  eight- 
eenth century. 

In  the  general  spirit  of  destruction  that  reigned  it 
looked  as  if  for  once  the  continuity  of  history  had  been 
broken.  But  a  closer  examination  shows  that  it  is 
simply  the  law  of  cause  and  effect  working  itself  out. 
If  men  will  sow  to  the  wind  they  must  expect  to  reap 
the  whirlwind.  Thus,  says  Mr.  Tylor,  in  his  Primitive 
Culture:  "The  stream  of  civilization  winds  and  turns 
upon  itself.     What  seems  the  bright  onward  course  of 


402    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

one  age  may  in  the  next  spin  round  in  a  whirling  eddy 
or  spread  into  a  dull  and  pestilential  swamp." 

B.  Church  Development  in  England 

A.  POLITICAL    OUTLINE 

The  reign  of  the  Stuarts  coincides  with  one  of  the 
most  stirring  periods  in  English  history.  It  extends 
from  1603  to  1714.  It  began  with  James  I.  and  ended 
with  Queen  Anne.  It  was  a  stormy  reign.  The 
French  minister  Sully  called  James  I.  the  "wisest  fool 
in  Christendom."  He  was  tyrannical  towards  both 
Protestants  and  Romanists,  and  was  an  especial  disap- 
pointment to  the  former.  Then  ensued  the  period  of 
the  Civil  War.  Charles  I.  was  beheaded  in  1649,  ^^^ 
the  period  of  the  Commonwealth  lasted  until  1660. 
Then  came  the  Restoration  of  Charles  II.,  1660  to  1685. 
With  James  II.  occurred  the  great  Revolution  which 
resulted  in  seating  William  and  Mary  on  the  throne. 
The  severe  conflicts  of  the  period  brought  many  great 
men  into  prominence.  Conspicuous  among  these  were 
Oliver  Cromwell  and  John  Milton.  Among  the  lead- 
ing causes  of  the  strife  was  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
right  of  kings  which  the  Stuarts  adopted.  This  doc- 
trine clashed  with  the  advanced  and  sturdy  spirit  of 
English  liberty.  The  result  was  the  triumph  of  lib- 
erty. "But,"  says  Macaulay,  "it  is  the  nature  of  the 
devil  of  tyranny  to  tear  and  rend  the  body  which  it 
leaves." 

B.  RELIGIOUS    OUTLINE 

In  the  Reformation  period  England  contended  first 
of  all  with  Romanism.  Then  there  arose  differences 
in   Protestantism   itself,  which  developed  at  last  into 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  403 

the  two  great  parties  of  Anglicanism  and  Puritanism — 
although  at  first  Puritanism  was  a  party  within 
Anglicanism.  Puritanism  divided  and  subdivided. 
Later  on  another  difference  arose  within  Anglicanism 
leading  to  separation,  and  the  outcome  is  the  great 
Methodist  movement. 

Science  and  Philosophy 

On  account  of  its  bearing  on  religious  development 
the  student's  attention  must  be  directed  to  the  prog- 
ress of  science  and  philosophy.  The  new  age 
expressed  itself  in  Francis  Bacon  (1516-1626); 
Thomas  Hobbes  (1588-1676);  John  Locke  (1632- 
1704);  and  Bishop  Berkeley  (1684-1753). 

The  Groiuth  of  Religious  Toleration 

Anglicanism  triumphed  over  Puritanism  and  all  other 
nonconforming  bodies.  But  this  did  not  by  any 
means  indicate  the  extinction  of  those  bodies.  Their 
existence  had  continually  to  be  taken  into  account. 
After  long  and  bitter  persecution  and  struggle  tolera- 
tion became  possible  and  then  prevailed. 

a.    The  Nonco?tformists 
The  leading  nonconformist  bodies  were: 

I.    The  Presbyterians 

The  doctrines  of  the  Presbyterians  were  set  forth  in 
the  Westminster  Confession,  which  embodied  the  main 
points  of  Calvinism  without  its  harsher  supralapsarian 
features.  The  Presbyterians  represented  the  severest 
type  of  Puritanism. 


404    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

2.    The  I?idepe?idents 

The  great  men  among  the  Independents  were  John 
Robinson,  who  flourished  about  1610,  and  Henry- 
Jacob,  about  1616.  In  their  polity  the  Independents 
held  that  each  congregation  is  a  law  unto  itself. 
Theologically  they  were  moderate  Calvinists. 

J.  The  Baptists 

The  Baptists  became  embroiled  in  the  free-will  con- 
troversies of  the  age.  Thus  there  arose  the  Particular 
Baptists,  who  were  Calvinistic,  and  the  General  Bap- 
tists, who  were  Arminian.  The  Particular  Baptists 
have  continued  to  the  present  day.  The  General 
Baptists  have  pretty  completely  gone  over  to  Socinian- 
ism.     In  polity  the  Baptists  were  like  the  Independents. 

4.  The  Quakers 

They  were  founded  by  George  Fox  (1624-1691). 
The  central  point  in  Quaker  theology  is  that:  "The 
Divine  Being  speaks  directly  to  the  heart  of  every 
man."  This  voice  is  called  the  Seed,  Grace,  Light  of 
Christ,  Word  of  God,  Christ  within.  The  Spirit  guides 
in  all  things.  All  ranks  of  birth,  sex,  fortune,  or  edu- 
cation are  reduced  to  a  spiritual  level.  There  is  no 
distinction  between  the  minister  and  the  congregation. 
This  spiritual  democracy  made  the  Quakers  political 
democrats.  Because  some  made  a  distinction  between 
yotc  and  thee  they  addressed  all  as  thee.  Because  some 
would  bow  to  the  great  and  scorn  the  poor  they  bowed 
to  none.  Because  the  hat  was  doffed  to  those  in  high 
places  the  Quaker  doffed  his  hat  to  no  one — not  even 
the  king.* 

*See  Sharpless:  A  History  of  Quaker  Government  in  Penn- 
sylvania.    Vol.  I. 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  405 

b.  The  Latitudi?iarians 

We  have  seen  Anglicanism  prevail  over  Puritanism. 
Yet  we  have  seen  it  obliged  to  become  tolerant 
towards  nonconformists.  We  are  now  to  see  a  divi- 
sion take  place  within  its  own  communion.  The  stem 
is  to  continue  as  the  high  church.  The  branch  is  to 
develop  as  Latitudinarianism, 

If  we  look  for  the  marks  of  Latitudinarianism  we 
shall  find  that  it  is  individualistic;  indifferent  to  the 
historical  claims  of  the  church;  impatient  of  church 
discipline;  indefinite  in  belief;  indifferent  to  system; 
opposed  to  high  church  sacerdotalism  on  one  hand, 
and  to  mysticism  as  seen  especially  among  the  Bap- 
tists and  Quakers  on  the  other  hand.  "Enlighten- 
ment, refinement,  decorousness  of  life,  become  the 
tests  of  religious  influence  rather  than  faith,  love,  and 
self-sacrifice.  Christianity  was  recommended,  not 
because  it  was  true  but  because  it  was  the  religion  of 
the  civilized  world."  Politically  the  Latitudinarians 
affiliated  with  the  Whigs.  They  had  many  great  men, 
such  as  Cudworth  (1617-1688);  Tillotson  (1630-1694); 
Chillingworth  (1602-1644). 

Among  the  results  of  Latitudinarianism  we  find  that 
it  acted  as  an  antidote  to  fanaticism;  asserted  the 
reasonableness  of  Christianity;  taught  that  virtue 
brings  its  own  reward;  denied  the  reality  of  special 
spiritual  illumination;  vindicated  the  logical  founda- 
tions of  Christianity  against  deism  and   unitarianism.* 

c.  Deism 

Deism  arose  in  England,  and  spread  thence  to 
France    and    Germany.       It    stands    at    the    opposite 

*  See  Wakeman,  pp.  426-428. 


406     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

extreme  from  pantheism.  Pantheism  is  the  absolute 
immanence  of  God,  while  deism  is  the  absolute  tran- 
scendence of  God.  The  deist  then  admitted  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  but  denied  His  presence  in  the  world  and 
His  continual  care  for  it. 

Deism  claims  a  long  list  of  great  men,  among  whom 
are  Lord  Herbert  (i 581-1648);  Thomas  Hobbes  (1588- 
1679);  Charles  Blount  (1654-1693);  Anthony  Collins 
(1676-1729);  David  Hume  (1711-1777);  Thomas  Paine 
(1737-1809);  Edward  Gibbon  (1737-1794). 

There  were  many  able  replies  to  deism,  and  among 
the  foremost  of  these  were  certain  of  the  Latitudina- 
rians.  Thus  the  contest  was  largely  intellectual.  "En- 
thusiasm," as  emotional  Christianity  was  called,  was 
denounced,  and  everywhere  the  tendency  was  towards 
a  cold  rationalism  to  take  the  place  of  religious  zeal. 

d.  The  Rise  of  Methodism 

Even  our  hasty  review  of  Latitudinarianism  and 
deism  and  their  influence  makes  it  easy  for  us  to  see 
what  must  have  been  the  deplorable  condition  of 
Christianity  at  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Either  the  evangelical  spirit  of  Christianity  must  be 
revived  or  Christianity  itself  must  perish.  But  it  was 
not  to  perish.  Rather  there  was  to  be  a  mighty  and 
far-reaching  evangelical  revival. 

God  raised  up  at  the  appointed  moment  efficient 
leaders  in  John  Wesley  (1703-1791)  and  Charles  Wes- 
ley and  George  Whitefield  (1714-1770). 

John  Wesley  was  the  son  of  an  Episcopal  rector  at 
Epworth.  His  mother  was  a  woman  of  unusual  energy 
and  piety,  and  her  influence  over  her  son  was  very 
marked.     At  Oxford  he  became  the  leader  of  a  group 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revohition  407 

of  young  men  who  by  their  obedience  to  the  rules  of 
the  university  were  nicknamed  "Methodists."  They 
regularly  read  such  devotional  works  as  Thomas  a 
Kempis'  Imitation  of  Christ,  Law's  Serious  Call,  and 
T^.'^Xq^x' %  Holy  Living  and  Dying.  The  organization  took 
the  name  of  the  Holy  Club.  In  1735  the  two  Wesleys 
went  as  missionaries  to  Georgia.  On  the  way  John 
Wesley  met  a  number  of  Moravians,  among  whom  was 
Spangenberg.  This  resulted  in  Wesley's  conversion  to 
the  Moravians,  which  event  became  the  turning-point 
in  his  religious  life.  There  were  two  leading  charac- 
teristics of  Wesley's  theology.  The  first  was  pietism. 
"Wesley's  idea  was  precisely  that  of  Spener  and  Zin- 
zendorf '  (Hurst:  H.  C.  C,  p.  349). 

This  pietism  led  to  the  doctrine  of  the  new  birth 
and  Christian  perfection. 

The  second  was  Arminianism.  This  was  the  doc- 
trine of  the  great  Methodist  movement. 

Whitefield  came  under  the  influence  of  the  French 
Protestants  in  London.  He  accepted  the  doctrine  of 
final  perseverance  and  irresistible  grace.  As  this 
could  not  be  harmonized  with  Arminianism  a  division 
took  place  into  Calvinistic  and  Arminian  Methodism. 
The  growth  of  Arminian  Methodism  has  been  phenom- 
enal. 

5.  The  Evangelicals 

The  religious  zeal  of  the  Methodists  went  every- 
where and  quickened  the  spiritual  life  of  all  denomina- 
tions of  Christians— the  Anglicans  among  the  rest. 
Without  yielding  the  Anglican  ecclesiastical  position, 
a  school  of  evangelical  pietists  arose,  drawing  their 
inspiration  from  the  Calvinistic  Methodists.  They 
were  known  as  the  evangelicals. 


408    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

C.  The  Development   of   Christianity  in  America 
LITERATURE 

Johnston:  A  History  of  the  United  States  for  Schools. 
A  new  edition  enlarged  and  thoroughly  revised  by 
Prof.  MacDonald. 

Lodge:  The  British  Colonies  i?i  America. 

Hart:  American  History  from  the  Sources. 

Tyler:  History  of  America?i  Literature.     4  vols. 

Bacon:  A  History  of  A?nerica?i  Christianity.  Very  im- 
portant. 

Thompson:  The  Hand  of  God  ifi  American  History.  A 
new  and  very  convincing  book. 

0' Gorman:  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United 
States. 

Scudder:   The  American  Commonwealth  Series. 

McMaster:  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States. 
Five  volumes  reaching  to  1880. 

Morris:  American  State sme7i  Series. 

A.    RELIGIOUS    BEGINNINGS 

Ideas  that  had  been  for  ages  in  process  of  differentia- 
tion and  development  in  the  old  world  were  in  their 
several  phases  to  reach  maturity  in  the  new  world. 
What  had  been  gained  in  the  struggle  for  political  and 
religious  freedom  was  to  be  preserved  and  increased, 
but  free  churches  in  a  free  state  were  to  be  realized 
only  far  in  the  future,  and  after  severe  persecution, 
suffering  and  struggle. 

America  was  discovered  in  the  fulness  of  time.  It 
is  easy  for  us  to  see  that  if  the  discovery  had  been 
made  a  century  earlier  the  form  of  Christianity  intro- 
duced would  have  been  of  the  type  represented  by 
Alexander  VI.  and  his  monstrous  son,  Caesar  Borgia. 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  409 

As  it  was,  Romanism  was  the  first  form  of  religion 
introduced  into  America.  But  it  was  the  earlier  and 
better  type  of  Jesuitism.  Jesuitism  at  its  best  was  bad 
enough,  but  it  was  an  improvement  on  the  Romanism 
of  the  fifteenth   century. 

The  extension  of  religion  was  one  of  the  chief 
motives  that  prompted  the  early  voyages  of  dis- 
covery. Columbus  distinctly  mentions  this  motive 
along  with  the  desire  for  wealth  and  the  love  of 
adventure.  And  the  organic  relations  of  church 
and  state  which  existed  all  over  Europe  made 
it  certain  that  religion  would  have  a  leading  place  in 
every  settlement.  The  form  would  be  determined  by 
the  religion  of  the  mother  country.  For  instance,  the 
Dutch  settlements  would  be  Calvinistic,  the  Spanish 
and  French  settlements  would  be  Romanist,  the  Eng- 
lish settlements  would  be  Episcopalian  and  noncon- 
formist. Thus  we  can  see  that  in  the  new  world  there 
would  be  a  greater  variety  of  forms  of  religion  than 
had  obtained  in  the  old.  We  can  also  see  that  the 
new  environment,  resulting  from  the  arduous  task  of 
turning  a  vast  wilderness  full  of  savage  tribes  into  a 
seat  of  civilization  would  give  each  form  a  better 
opportunity  for  unmolested  development. 

The  three  nations  that  were  to  make  permanent  set- 
tlements in  America  were  Spain,  France,  and  England. 

Spain 

The  Spanish  settlements  were  made  chiefly  in  the 
south.  And  Spain's  permanent  influence  has  been 
confined  to  South  America,  Mexico,  and  the  south- 
western portions  of  North  America.  The  Spanish 
occupation  has  been  fitly  described  as  "a  story  of 
attempted  co-operation  in  the  common  service  of  God 


410     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

and  Mammon  and  Moloch— of  endeavors  after  concord 
between  Christ  and  Belial"  (Bacon:  Hist,  of  Ch.  in 
Am). 

The  same  Spain  that  we  see  pursuing  its  course  of 
narrowness,  tyranny  and  cruelty  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  operates  also  in  America.  And  the  violated 
laws  of  humanity,  commerce  and  Christianity  have 
worked  themselves  out  with  terrible  relentlessness. 

Fraiice 

The  permanent  French  settlements  were  confined 
mainly  to  the  northeastern  portion  of  North  America. 
The  center  was  fixed  by  Champlain  in  1608  at  Quebec. 
The  motives  of  the  French  were  purer  than  those  of 
the  Spanish,  and  their  plans  were  grandly  conceived. 
Their  explorer.  La  Salle,  established  ports  from  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawerence  through  the  center  of  the 
continent  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  their  mem- 
orials remain  in  many  of  the  names  of  towns  and  states. 

England 

But  neither  Spain  nor  France  was  to  have  permanent 
possession  of  the  best  portion  of  the  new  world. 
That  was  to  belong  to  England  and  the  English  race. 
It  was  to  consist  of  the  vast  central  tract  extending 
from  Florida  to  Nova  Scotia,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific. 

The  antecedents  of  American  church  history  are  to 
be  found  back  in  continental  and  English  history.  On 
the  continent  we  have  seen  events  leading  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  1530,  and  the 
opposing  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  thus  divid- 
ing Christendom   into  two  hostile  parties.     We  have 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  411 

also  seen  Protestantism  divided  into  Lutherans  and 
Zwinglians  and  Calvinists.  Each  party  had  much  of 
truth,  but  also  much  of  error,  and  so  in  the  very  nature 
of  the  case  there  could  be  no  permanent  peace. 

In  England,  as  we  have  noted,  the  Reformation, 
while  having  much  in  common  with  the  continent,  ran 
a  very  different  course  and  yielded  widely  different 
results.  Anglicanism  prevailed,  but  Romanism  main- 
tained a  strong  organization;  the  Puritans  arose,  lead- 
ing to  a  modified  Anglican  party,  and  to  several  forms 
of  dissent,  such  as  the  Presbyterians,  Independents, 
Baptists,  and  Quakers. 

All  of  these  variations,  in  many  cases  still  farther 
differentiated,  were  to  come  across  the  sea,  and  survive 
according  to  their  fitness.  Their  fitness  was  to  be 
determined  through  conflict.  They  came  with  the 
settlements  that  were  established  along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  Their  home  governments  were  usually  so 
much  occupied  with  their  own  affairs  that  they  could 
render  but  little  assistance  to  their  kindred  in  the  new 
world.  They  had  not  even  learned  well  the  meaning 
of  toleration,  to  say  nothing  of  liberty,  and  they  were 
as  narrow  and  as  intent  on  bringing  their  neighbors  of 
different  views  to  their  own  tenets  as  circumstances 
would  permit. 

At  first  thought  it  seems  to  be  deplorable  that  these 
differences  and  conflicts  should  exist  in  the  new  world. 
Yet  it  is  only  truth  divided  into  many  sections  seeking 
to  get  free  and  combine  into  a  harmonious  union. 
"For,"  says  Dr.  Bacon,  "fifteen  centuries  of  church 
history  have  not  been  wasted  if  thereby  the  Christian 
people  have  learned  that  the  pursuit  of  Christian  unity 
through  administrative,  or  corporate,  or  diplomatic 
union   is  following  the  wrong  road,  and  that  the  one 


412     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Holy  Catholic   Church   is    not   the   corporation  of   the 
saints,  but  their  communion^ 

Over  all  these  conflicting  views  the  general  English 
spirit — sufficiently  divided  within  itself — was  to  pre- 
vail, and  at  last  the  inexorable  logic  of  English  history 
was  to  work  itself  out  into  free  churches  in  a  free  state. 
This  great  principle  assured  to  each  sect  a  fair  field  but 
no  favor.  The  one  that  had  the  most  of  truth  was  to 
show  it  in  fruits,  and  in  the  end  would  have  most  of 
prosperity.  "The  history  reads  like  a  fulfillment  of 
the  apocalyptic  imagery  of  a  rock  hewn  from  the 
mountain  without  hands  moving  on  to  fill  the  whole 
earth." 

Settlements 

The  principal  settlements  along  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board were: 

a.  Jamestown 

The  English  established  the  first  successful  colony 
at  Jamestown  in  1607.  It  was  composed  of  Anglican 
Puritans. 

b,  Plymouth 

This  colony  was  founded  in  1620  by  English  Inde- 
pendents, whom  persecution  had  driven  first  to  Hol- 
land, but  who,  desiring  wider  freedom,  sought  it 
beyond  the  sea. 

c.  Salem 

This  town  was  founded  in  1628  by  eight  hundred 
English  Puritans.  Among  these  were  John  Cotton, 
Thomas  Hooker,  and  Roger  Williams.  John  Win- 
throp  was  the  leader.     Defection  led  Hooker,  in  1636, 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  413 

to  move  farther  inland  and  found  Windsor,  Hartford, 
and  Wethersfield.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
Connecticut  colony. 

d.  Maryland 

In  1634  the  English  colony  of  Maryland  was  founded 
by  Lord  Baltimore,  Although  Lord  Baltimore  had 
become  a  Romanist,  and  the  majority  of  the  colonists 
were  Romanists,  the  colony  was  liberal,  and  other 
forms  of  faith  were  admitted 

e.  Nezv  York 

In  1615  the  Dutch  settled  Manhattan  Island  and 
established  posts  along  the  Hudson  River,  which  had 
been  discovered  in  1609.  They  were  Calvinists.  They 
were  gradually  driven  out  by  the  English,  and  their 
town,  New  Amsterdam,  became  New  York. 

/.    Rhode  Island 

In  1636  Roger  Williams  was  driven  out  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts theocracy,  and  founded  the  town  of  Provi- 
dence and  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island. 

It  was  in  the  nature  of  things  that  a  man  of  Williams' 
nature  should,  after  breaking  with  the  theocracy, 
affiliate  with  the  Baptists,  who  had  anticipated  him  in 
his  doctrine  of  soul  liberty.  But  he  was  too  much  of 
a  free  lance  to  remain  long  with  the  Baptists,  and  he 
spent  his  last  years  as  an  outsider. 

Williams  founded  the  first  Baptist  church  in  Rhode 
Island  in  1639.  The  second  Baptist  church  was 
founded  by  John  Clark  at  Newport.  From  such  begin- 
nings the  Baptists  made  their  way  in  the  face  of  steady 
opposition.  The  American  principle  of  non-interfer- 
ence of  the  state  with  religion  and  the  legal  equality 


414    A  Short  History   of  the  Christian  Church 

of  all  religionswas  much  aided  by  environment.  "But," 
says  Dr.  Bacon,  "so  far  as  this  work  was  a  work  of 
intelligent  conviction  and  religious  faith,  the  chief 
honor  of  it  must  be  given  to  the  Baptists.  Other 
sects,  notably  the  Presbyterians,  had  been  energetic 
and  efficient  in  demanding  their  own  liberties;  the 
Friends  and  the  Baptists  agreed  in  demanding  liberty 
of  conscience  and  worship,  and  equality  before  the 
law,  for  all  alike.  But  the  active  labor  in  this  cause 
was  mainly  done  by  the  Baptists.  It  is  to  their  con- 
sistency and  constancy  in  the  warfare  against  the 
privileges  of  the  powerful  'Standing  Orders'  of  New 
England,  and  of  the  moribund  establishments  of  the 
south,  that  we  are  chiefly  indebted  for  the  final 
triumph,  in  this  country,  of  that  principle  of  the  sepa- 
ration of  church  from  state,  which  is  one  of  the  largest 
contributions  of  the  new  world  to  civilization  and  to 
the   church   universal"    {Hisl.  of  Am.    Christianity,  pp. 

221-222). 

Brown  University  was  founded  by  the  Baptists  in 
1765.  Many  distinguished  men  are  numbered  among 
her  alumni. 

g.   Pennsylvania 

This  colony  was  established  in  1681  by  the  society 
of  Friends  led  by  William  Penn.  The  constitution  of 
the  colony  made  all  forms  of  faith  equal  before  the 
law.     It  was  the  most  liberal  of  all. 

It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  most  of  the  colonists 
were  highly  cultivated  and  religious.  They  felt  the 
need  of  education  for  their  children  because  they  were 
educated,  and  they  were  zealous  for  church  extension 
because  Christianity  is  essentially  missionary.      The 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  415 

result  was  that,  starting  with  all  that  Europe  had 
gained,  they  took  it  as  a  basis  and  pushed  on  to 
further  developments. 

We  accordingly  have  institutions  of  learning  founded 
as  follows:  Harvard,  1636;  Yale,  1700;  Princeton, 
1746;  Columbia,  1746;  Brown,  1765;  Dartmouth,  1769; 
Rutgers,  1770.  These  simple  facts  indicate  the  intel- 
lectual activity  of  the  northern  colonies,  and  especially 
of  New  England, 

The  leading  confessions  of  faith  were:  The  Cam- 
bridge Platform  (1647)  ^^^  Massachusetts;  and  the 
Saybrook  Platform  (1708)  for  Connecticut.  They 
were  substantially  in  agreement  with  the  Westminster 
Confession.  The  government  was  a  theocracy  which 
made  no  pretensions  to  universal  toleration. 

The  presence  of  Arminian  influences  led  Jonathan 
Edwards  to  attempt  a  restatement  and  readjustment  of 
Calvinism.  Edwards  had  been  an  earnest  student  of 
Locke,  and  all  influences  combining  in  him  led  to  con- 
siderable variations  in  the  Calvinistic  system.  He 
thus  became  the  founder  of  New  England  Theology. 

B.    THE    GREAT    AWAKENING 

The  leading  spirits  in  the  Great  Awakening  were 
^^nathan  Edwards.  Whitefield.  and  the  Tennent,s.  In  one 
hundred  years  there  had  been  remarkable  progress  all 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  people  had  begun 
to  be  comfortable,  the  great  religious  denominations 
that  were  to  flourish  in  the  new  country  were  already 
established,  and  the  weakness  and  strength  of  each 
form  of  polity  was  beginning  to  show  itself.  Armin- 
ianism  was  exerting  a  large  influence,  and  the  tend- 
ency of  the  preaching  was  to  address  the  intellect 
rather  than  the  heart.     In  Connecticut  and   Massachu- 


416     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

setts  only  church  members  could  vote  and  hold  office, 
and  the  test  of  church  membership  had  been  evidences 
of  regeneration.  This  was  a  hardship  to  many  excel- 
lent people,  and  to  avoid  it  the  Half-way  Covenant, 
by  which  those  who  had  been  baptized  in  inL.ncy  could 
have  their  children  baptized  on  assent  to  the  Covenant, 
was  used  in  many  places.  Thus  in  many  ways,  things 
were  drifting  away  from  the  deeply  and  truly  spiritual 
to  the  coldly  intellectual. 

And  so  the  need  was  felt  for  a  great  and  searching 
revival.  It  began  with  Edwards  at  Northampton  in 
1734,  and  spread  over  New  England.  It  also  began  in 
New  Jersey  about  the  same  time,  and  was  carried  on 
under  the  leadership  of  the  Tenn^als.  In  1740  Whjte- 
field  traveled  from  the  southern,  through  the  middle, 
to  the  eastern,  colonies  stirring  the  people  with  his 
eloquence.  With  Edwards  the  emotions  were  prop- 
erly controlled,  with  Whitefield  they  frequently  passed 
all  boundaries,  and  with  the  Tennents  they  ran  riot. 
Gilbert  Tennent's  sermon  on  "The  Unconverted  Min- 
istry" led  to  a  division,  of  sentiment.  The  Presby- 
terians had  little  enthusiasm,  and  the  Episcopalians 
were  aroused  to  resentment.  In  a  letter  of  1743, 
quoted  by  Dr.  McConnell  in  T/ie  Americaji  Episcopal 
Churchy  p.  142,  occurs  this  passage:  "After  him  [White- 
field]  came  one  Tennent,  a  monster!  impudent  and 
noisy,  and  told  them  that  they  were  damn'd,  damn'd, 
damn'd;  this  charmed  them,  and  in  the  most  dreadful 
winter  I  ever  saw,  people  wallowed  in  the  snow  night 
and  day  for  the  benefit  of  his  beastly  brayings,  and 
many  ended  their  lives  under  these  fatigues." 

Opinions  will  differ  very  widely  as  to  such  move- 
ments as  the  Great  Awakening,  and  on  the  subject  of 
religious  revivals  in  general.      But  perhaps  no  one  has 


From  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  French  Revolution  417 

made  so  well  balanced  a  statement  of  the  case  as 
Jonathan  Edwards  in  his  Thoughts  on  Revivals,  Part  I, 
Sec.  3,  where  he  says:  "A  great  deal  of  noise  and 
tumult,  confusion  and  uproar,  darkness  mixed  with 
light,  and  evil  with  good,  is  always  to  be  expected  in 
the  beginning  of  something  very  glorious  in  the  state 
of  things  in  human  society  or  the  church  of  God. 
After  nature  has  long  been  shut  up  in  a  cold,  dead 
state,  when  the  sun  returns  in  the  spring,  there  is, 
together  with  the  increase  of  the  light  and  heat  of  the 
sun,  very  tempestuous  weather  before  all  is  settled 
calm,  and  serene,  and  all  nature  rejoices  in  its  bloom 
and  beauty." 

The  Great  Awakening  was  a  wave  of  pietism  which 
' ' terminated  the   Puritan  and   inaugurated  the  pietist 
_or_Methodist  age  of  American  church  history^" 

C.    THE    GERMANS    IN   AMERICA 

Pietism,  as  we  have  seen,  in  Germany  lived  on  in 
TinjTfndorf  nnd  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Moravians  at  Herrnhut.  But  this  great  and  exemplary 
Christian  man  sought  personally  to  spread  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  Gospel  in  America.  He  arrived  at  Phila- 
delphia in  I74r,  and  spent  Christmas  at  Bethlehem  in 
the  Lehigh  Valley.  He  saw  the  distracted  condition 
of  the  Germans  representing  the  different  sects,  and 
would  gladly  have  become  their  shepherd  had  it  been 
possible  for  the  sectarian  spirit  to  be  quieted.  This, 
however,  was  not  to  be  thought  of,  and  the  Lutherans 
immediately  sent  Henry  Melchior  Muhlenberg  to 
look  after  the  Lutherans.  Muhlenberg  was  a  man 
of  ability  and  genuine  piety,  but  rigid  in  his  doc- 
trines.    As  Zinzendorf  was  a  man  of  peace  he  yielded 


418     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

all  that  he  had  gained,  and  Moravians  and  Lutherans 
went  their  separate  ways. 

The  Reformed,   being  Calvinistic,    were    unable    to 
unite  with  the  Lutherans,  or  Moravians,  and  through 
the  aid  of  Holland  they  followed  the  lead  of  Midiael_ 
Schlatter,  who   instituted  the  synod  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  1747. 


Establishment  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  {lydd) 

This  great  organization  was  established  very  late  in 
the  colonial  period.  But  its  progress  has  been  unprec- 
edented. It  began  in  New  York  in  the  house  of 
Philip  Embury.  Its  first  church  was  a  sail  loft.  The 
work  spread^o~Philadelphia,  and  at  last  fixed  its  head- 
quarters at  Baltimore  under  the  leadership  of  Francis 
Asbury,  who  came  from  England  in  1771,  and  who 
traveled  over  the  colonies  with  tireless  energy.  The 
Methodists  grew  steadily  during  the  Revolution,  at 
the  end  of  which  they  numbered  seventy  itinerant 
preachers  and  twelve  thousand  members.* 

*See  Buckley:  Methodism.     2  vols. 


CHAPTER    IV 

FROM    THE    FRENCH      REVOLUTION    TO 
THE  PRESENT  TIME 

(1789-1901) 

LITERATURE 

Seignobos :  Political  History  of  Cojitemporary  Europe.  2 
vols.  This  is  the  latest  and  in  many  respects  the  best 
work  on  the  subject.  Its  chief  characteristic  is  that  it 
is  ''an  explanatory  history."     It  begins  at  1814. 

Fyffe:  History  of  Modern  Europe.  3  vols.  Also 
abridged  into  one  volume. 

Mtiller:  Political  History  of  Recent  Times. 

Murdock :   The  Reconstruction  of  Europe. 

Carr:  TJie  Development  of  Modern  Religious  Thought — 
Especially  in  Germa?iy. 

Banks:   The  Teiidencies  of  Modern  Thought. 

Nippold:  The  Papacy  in  the  XlXth  Century.  The  most 
important  recent  contribution  to  the  subject, 

Taylor :  Italy  and  the  Italiajis. 

Lorimer :   CJiristianity  in  the  NiiietceJitJi  Century. 

Stephens:   The  French  Revolution.     Gives  the  facts. 

Mathews:   The  Fre?ich  Revolution.     Interprets. 

Von  Hoist:   The  French  Revolution. 

Sloane:   The  French  Rev olutio7i  and  Religious  Reform. 

SchafF:   Clnirch  and  State. 

Andrews:  History  of  the  U?nted  States.     2  vols. 

Carroll:   The  Religious  Forces  of  the  United  States. 

419 


420     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Thompson:  A  History  of  tlie  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the 
U?iited  States. 

Walker:  A  History  of  the  Congregational  Churches  in 
the  United  States. 

Dorchester :   Christianity  in  the  United  States. 

Eminent  Specialists:  The  Progress  of  the  Cefitury.  Very 
important. 

Newman:  A  Ce?ittiry  of  Baptist  Achieveme?it. 

Adeney:  A  Centnry  s  Progress  in  Religious  Life  and 
Thoug/U. 

A.    Church  Development  on  the  Continent 

The  nineteenth  century  opens  in  the  midst  of  the 
period  of  the  French  Revolution.  France  has  already 
been  terribly  punished  for  her  sins,  and  is  still  to  suffer 
further  retribution  before  she  can  return  to  something 
like  general  sanity.  The  influence  of  the  great  French 
Revolution  and  of  the  succeeding  revolutions  of  1830 
and  1848  upon  general  European  politics  and  society 
is  to  be  far-reaching  and  in  the  main  wholesome.  The 
Napoleonic  armies  broke  up  the  existing  order  or  dis- 
order in  the  leading  European  states.  The  phantom 
Holy  Roman  Empire  went  to  pieces  under  his  blows 
in  1806.  The  great  crowd  of  petty  states  and  princi- 
palities were  destroyed  forever.  Thus  without  any 
intention  of  Napoleon's,  the  way  was  opened  leading 
to  complete  nationalization  within  natural  geograph- 
ical and  racial  boundaries.  The  results  came  in  the 
flow  of  events  which  has  given  us  at  the  close  of  our 
century  a  united  kingdom  of  Italy,  a  united  German 
empire,  and  a  united  republic  of  France. 

The  general  prosperity  of  England  has  surpassed 
that  of  all  preceding  centuries. 

The  United  States  of  America  has  entered  the  list  of 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present   421 

leading  states  in  the  world,  and  now  at  the  opening  of 
the  new  century  has  become  one  of  the  controlling 
forces  in  all  the  great  world  movements. 

The  history  of  the  achievements  of  the  nineteenth 
century  in  science  pure  and  applied,  and  in  the 
development  of  means  for  promoting  human  happi- 
ness, reads  like  a  romance.  But  with  all  these  achieve- 
ments which  were  only  possible  because  of  the  toils  of 
preceding  centuries,  new  problems  have  arisen  which 
will  tax  the  abilities  of  men  to  their  utmost  reach. 

A.    THE    PAPACY 

Religion  had  been  abolished  in  the  frenzy  of  the 
French  Revolution.  But  Napoleon  was  too  sagacious 
an  observer  of  human  nature  not  to  see  the  value  of 
religion  as  a  moral  force  in  secular  government. 
Negotiations  were  accordingly  begun  between  Pope 
Pius  VII.  and  the  emperor.  The  pope  was  restored, 
but  when  he  began  to  stand  for  his  own  opinions  a 
conflict  ensued  which  resulted  in  the  pope's  capture 
and  imprisonment.  The  imprisonment  lasted  until 
Napoleon's  overthrow.  After  this  Europe  was  able  to 
stop  and  take  her  bearings. 

It  was  natural  that  the  immediate  effect  of  the  revo- 
lution should  be  a  reaction  against  liberalism  and 
progress.  After  twenty-five  years  of  tossing  to  and 
fro  men  everywhere  longed  for  stability.  Even  the 
liberals  had  been  sated  and  progress  had  come  to  be 
almost  identical  with  anarchy  and  irreligion. 

The  papacy  was  quick  to  detect  the  state  of  opinion 
and  to  take  advantage  of  it.  By  the  common  and 
willing  consent  of  all  the  European  powers  Pius  VII. 
was  restored  to  his  dominions,  and  the  era  of  reaction 
set  in.     The  pope's  first  move  was  to  re-establish  the 


422    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Jesuits,  one  of  whose  rules  was,  as  we  have  learned, 
absolute  obedience  to  the  pope.  This  was  done  in  the 
bull  of  1814  —  Solicitiido  Omniiun  Ecclesiamm  —  in 
response,  as  he  said,  to  the  almost  united  will  of 
Christendom.  "The  scattered  stones  of  the  temple 
and  the  destruction  of  discipline,  caused  by  the  late 
calamities  and  misfortunes,  demanded  his  consent  to 
such  unanimous  and  right  wishes.  He  would  become 
a  partaker  of  grievous  sin  towards  God,  if  in  the  midst 
of  the  heavy  storms  which  were  raging  round  the 
vessel  of  Peter  he  turned  away  the  strong  and  expe- 
rienced rowers  who  offered  themselves  to  break 
through  the  raging  billows  which  every  moment 
threatened  inevitable  ruin.  Therefore  ...  by  his 
present  irrevocable  decree  he  commands  that  the 
orders  before  given  touching  Russia  and  both  Sicilies 
should  from  this  moment  be  extended  to  all  parts  of 
the  states  of  the  church  as  well  as  to  all  other  states 
and  dominions.  This  decree  shall  remain  for  all  time 
unchangeable  and  inviolable"  (Nippold,  pp.  31-32). 

This  infallible  decree  expressly  repudiates  the  infal- 
lible decree  of  Clement  XIV.  (1771),  which  forbade  the 
restoration  of  the  Jesuits  forever. 

Pius  VII.  died  in  1823.  His  successor  was  Leo  XII. 
In  his  encyclical,  May  5,  1824,  he  condemned  all  reli- 
gious freedom,  Bible  societies  which  were  making  of 
the  Bible  the  gospel  of  the  devil.  In  his  brief  to  the 
clergy  of  Poitiers  (1826)  he  says:  "Every  one  who 
separates  himself  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
however  otherwise  blameless  his  manner  of  life,  has  on 
account  of  this  one  crime,  because  he  is  excluded  from 
the  unity  of  Christ,  no  part  in  the  eternal  life;  God's 
wrath  hangs  over  him." 

Leo  XII.  died   in  1829,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  423 

VIII.,  whose  reign  of  one  year  was  in  line  with  those 
of  his  predecessors.  He  was  succeeded  in  1831  by- 
Gregory  XVI.  His  position  is  set  forth  in  his  ency- 
clical which  appeared  in  1832.  It  is  a  declaration  of 
war  on  "the  freedom  of  science  and  learning,  in  poli- 
tics as  well  as  in  the  church." 

Gregory  was  succeeded  in  1846  by  Pius  IX.  His 
accession  coincides  with  one  of  the  most  stirring 
periods  of  European  politics.  Pius  started  out  as  a 
liberal  pope,  to  the  great  joy  of  all  lovers  of  freedom. 
Most  of  the  states  were  demanding  constitutions^the 
papal  states  among  the  rest.  The  pressure  upon  the 
pope  was  so  strong  that  he  was  obliged  to  grant  a  con- 
stitution, and  to  see  the  Jesuits  expelled.  He  released 
political  prisoners  who  had  been  arrested  by  his 
predecessors,  and  took  important  steps  towards  public 
improvements  and  lay  management.  It  looked  as  if 
Italy  might  be  reunited  under  a  liberal  pope. 

But  the  leaders  of  the  democratic  movement  were 
determined  that  the  government  should  not  be  man- 
aged by  cardinals.  The  pope  would  not  engage  in  an 
Austrian  war.  The  result  was  a  popular  uprising  in 
which  Rossi,  the  pope's  minister,  was  assassinated, 
and  the  pope  himself  was  obliged  to  flee. 

After  these  experiences  it  turned  out  that  the  pope's 
liberality  had  only  been  political — never  ecclesiastical. 
The  Jesuits  regained  their  ascendency  in  his  counsels, 
and  he  dropped  back  into  the  policy  inaugurated  by 
Pius  VII.  and  carried  it  out  with  a  high  hand. 

In  1854,  at  a  meeting  of  ecclesiastics  at  Rome  he 
decreed  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  in  the  bull,  hie ffabilis  Dens.  "By  virtue  of  the 
authority  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  of  the  apostles  Peter  and 
Paul,  and  of  his  own;  that  the  doctrine  which  main- 


424    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

tains  that  Mary  in  the  first  moment  of  her  conception 
was  by  special  grace  and  special  privilege  of  God  pre- 
served from  all  stain  of  hereditary  sin,  had  been 
revealed  by  God,  and  was  therefore  to  be  believed 
firmly  and  constantly  by  all  the  faithful." 

In  1864  he  issued  an  encyclical  and  Syllabus  of 
Errors.  There  were  eighty  of  these  errors.  In  addi- 
tion to  naturalism,  pantheism,  and  rationalism,  civil 
marriage,  secular  education,  Bible  societies,  and  free- 
dom of  conscience  are  condemned. 

He  also  revived  the  question  of  the  infallibility  of 
the  pope,  and  this  led  to  the  CEcumenical  Council  of 
1869-70.  The  preparations  for  this  council  were  most 
carefully  made.  Every  detail  that  could  in  the  least 
aid  in  securing  the  end  in  view  was  arranged  by  the 
wily  pontiff,  and  the  council  was  in  no  sense  deliber- 
ative, but  afifirmative.  Some  of  the  invitations  to  the 
council  deserve  notice. 

1.  The  Eastern  church  was  invited  to  send  repre- 
sentatives, but  with  the  understanding  that  they  were 
to  take  no  part  in  the  proceedings  "till  they  professed 
the  Catholic  faith  whole  and  entire." 

2.  The  Reformed  churches  were  invited  to  send  rep- 
resentatives who  "should  be  referred  to  experienced 
men,  and  have  their  difficulties  solved." 

Ostensibly  the  purpose  of  the  council  was  threefold: 
the  faith,  the  church,  missions.  Really  the  purpose 
was  the  establishment  of  the  dogma  of  papal  infal- 
libility. This  dogma  was  skillfully  placed  under  the 
rubric  of  the  church — De  Ecclesia  Christi. 

The  debate  upon  the  dogma  was  animated  and  sharp, 
and  it  lasted  from  December,  1869,  to  July,  1870. 
But  opposition  had  been  useless  from  the  beginning. 
The  dogma  was  voted  with  only  two  non  placets.     But 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  425 

fifty-five  members  of  the  council  remained  away  from 
the  final  session,  having  formally  declared  their  oppo- 
sition to  the  dogma.  The  day  following  the  adoption 
of  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  France  declared  war 
against  Germany. 

The  fifty-five  who  remained  away  became  the  nucleus 
of  a  revolt.  The  leader  was  Ignatius  von  Dollinger,  a 
theologian  and  historian  of  the  first  rank.  A  meeting 
was  held  during  the  same  summer  at  Nuremberg.  The 
Vatican  Council  was  declared  not  oecumenical.  The 
dogma  of  papal  infallibility  was  therefore  not  binding. 
At  a  later  meeting  in  Munich  the  Old  Catholic  church 
was  organized.* 

Another  result  of  the  Vatican  Council  was  the  Ktil- 
tiirkampf  or  "fight  for  civilization."  A  party  had 
grown  up  among  the  Romanists  known  as  the  Ultra- 
montanists.  Its  principle  was  obedience  to  the  pope 
rather  than  the  government.  The  Old  Catholics  were 
deposed  by  Rome.  But  they  received  their  share  of 
the  state  appropriations.  This  lessened  the  amount 
received  by  the  Romanists.  Reduced  appropriations 
led  to  an  outbreak  of  the  Ultramontanists.  Bismarck 
was  the  leader  on  the  side  of  the  German  government, 
and  Windhorst  was  the  leader  of  the  Ultramontanists. 
In  1873  the  Falk  laws,  prepared  by  Falk — minister  of 
public  worship  and  instruction — were  passed.  These 
laws  were  radical.  They  secularized  education 
entirely;  put  the  state  in  control  of  ecclesiastical 
appointments;  demanded  that  church  officers  should 
be    educated   in    German   universities;    required    civil 

*See  Beyschlag:  "The  Origin  and  Development  of  the  Old 
Catholic  Movement,"  American  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  481-526.  Also  Theodorus:  The  New  Reformation,  "The  Old 
Catholic  Movement. ' ' 


426     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

marriage;  set  up  a  royal  court  for  the  final  settlement 
of  ecclesiastical  questions;  and  demanded  from  all  the 
clergy  a  pledge  of  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  state. 

The  resistance  of  the  Ultramontanes  to  these  laws 
was  most  determined  and  persistent.  It  was  in  this 
conflict  that  Bismarck  said:  "We  shall  never  go  to 
Canossa  again."  But  the  fact  remains  that  most  of 
the  laws  have  been  repealed,  and  Romanism  has  won  a 
victory. 

This  outline  shows  that  the  long  reign  of  Pius  IX. 
was  full  of  momentous  events. 

In  Leo  XIII.  a  consummate  diplomatist  ascended 
the  papal  throne.  He  has  been  very  generally 
described  as  "The  Peace  Pope."  In  order  that  we 
may  understand  the  quality  of  this  "peace"  we  must 
look  at  a  few  of  the  utterances  of  the  pope  who  bears 
the  title.  When  he  was  bishop  of  Perugia  he  called 
Protestantism  "a  pest,  the  most  pestilential  heresy,  a 
stupid,  fickle  system,  originating  in  arrogance  and 
godlessness."  In  his  second  encyclical  he  made  the 
church  the  sole  guardian  of  society,  called  the  Refor- 
mation "the  insane  war  which  since  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury had  been  waged  by  the  innovators  against  the 
Catholic  church."  The  Evangelical  schools  in  Rome 
were  referred  to  as  "the  impudence  without  parallel 
with  which  in  Rome  even  under  the  eyes  of  the  pope 
such  schools  were  established,  in  which  tender  chil- 
dren were  fed  with  abominable  errors,  and  from  which 
proceeded  influences  the  most  harmful  and  most 
injurious  to  manners." 

All  his  earlier  expressions  show  that  he  fell  at  once 
into  the  theological  positions  of  Pius  IX.,  emphasiz- 
ing among  the  rest  the  restoration  of  the  temporal 
power.     But  the  greatest  significance  attaches  to  the 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  427 

third  encyclical  in  which  he  makes  "the  philosophy  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  the  foundation  of  all  studies  in 
schools  and  seminaries  ...  a  system  which  with  an 
unsurpassed  consistency  preaches  irreconcilable  war 
against  the  modern  world  of  ideas." 

Then  as  we  follow  the  subtle  movements  of  this 
pope,  and  see  that  when  he  here  and  there  yields  a 
secondary  matter  it  is  only  that  he  may  gain  a  point  of 
greater  importance,  and  when  we  see  him  stirring  up 
strife  within  nations  and  between  nations  with  a  view 
to  personal  advantage;  and  see,  too,  his  minions  going 
to  all  the  ends  of  civilization — as  all  this  comes  up 
before  us,  we  are  able  to  understand  what  kind  of  a 
"peace  pope"  Leo  XIII.  really  is.* 

Much  as  we  may  desire  it  to  be  otherwise,  the  study 
of  the  facts  in  the  papacy  in  the  nineteenth  century 
forces  us  to  admit  that  where  the  Jesuits  have  the 
power  Rome  never  changes. 

And  we  reluctantly  admit  the  truth  of  Rector 
Schwab's  statement  in  his  introduction  to  Nippold's 
Papacy  i?t  the  Nineteenth  Ce?itnry — "True:  we  need 
no  longer  fear  bodily  harm,  and  those  who  are  anxious 
only  to  save  their  skin  may  set  their  minds  at  rest. 
But  are  there  not  other  considerations  that  may  appeal 
with  equal  force  to  an  anxious  solicitude?  Is  not  the 
possibility  of  national  decay  something  to  care  about? 
The  danger  from  the  church  of  Rome  to-day  is  not  the 
stake  or  torture;  but  it  is  the  danger  from  insidious 
moral  and  spiritual  forces  threatening  to  stop  a 
nation's  progress,  to  corrupt  a  nation's  ethical  stand- 
ard, to  darken  a  nation's  intellect.  The  greatest  task 
which  God  has  appointed  to  the  religious  forces  of  this 
country  is  to  build   up  a  government   in  city,  state  and 

*See  McKim:  Leo  XIII.  at  the  Bar  of  History. 


428     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

nation  which  shall  be  pure  and  just;  and  the  papal 
system  is  the  most  determined  enemy  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  task." 

B.    LUTHERANISM 

We  have  observed  the  remarkable  advance  move- 
ment of  the  great  continental  states,  and  the  no  less 
remarkable  reactionary  movement  in  Romanism.  We 
are  now  to  note  the  progress  and  divisions  of  Luth- 
eranism.  It  has  advanced  far  beyond  the  standards  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession.  Progress  once  a  fact  is  sure 
to  approach,  and  often  to  pass,  the  danger  line.  The 
philosophical,  literary,  and  theological  activities  of 
the  eighteenth  century  pass  right  on  into  the  nine- 
teenth without  a  break  with  farther  variations  and 
closer  applications.  The  Protestant  world  is  just  as 
little  satisfied  as  it  has  ever  been,  and  the  demand  is 
for  further  elimination  of  error,  and  further  develop- 
ment of  truth. 

Philosophy 

We  have  noted  philosophical  questions  raised  by 
Descartes  and  Locke,  and  the  attempts  at  solution 
resulting  in  the  gross  materialism  of  the  French  senti- 
mentalists, and  the  development  of  idealism  through 
Leibnitz  and  Kant,  to  the  subjective  idealism  of 
Fichte.  In  Germany  the  matter  could  not  rest  where 
Fichte  left  it. 

Schelling  (1775-1854)  represents  a  reaction  against 
individualism,  and  a  return  to  universalism.  The 
differences  in  things  are  only  quantitative,  and  even 
these  differences  disappear  in  the  indifference  of  the 
absolute.  The  absolute  is  the  whole  of  which  the 
parts  are  but  differentiations.     It  is  not  a  mere  aggre- 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present   429 

gate,  but  a  fundamental  unity.  To  Schelling  the  uni- 
verse is  a  living  being  manifesting  itself  in  mind  and 
physical  nature.     He  is  an  objective  idealist. 

The  way  is  now  prepared  for  Hegel  ( 1775-183 1), 
whose  thesis  is  that  the  absolute  is  "not  substance,  but 
subject.'''  This  meant  that  the  absolute  is  a  self- 
differentiating  principle,  realizing  itself  in  a  world  of 
difference  which  is  no  mere  appearance,  but  its  own 
essential  manifestation,  and  again — what  is  the  coun- 
terpart or  complementary  truth  to  this — that  in  the 
world  there  are  "degrees  of  reality,"  and  that  "mind 
isji[gher  in  degree  than  nature." 

This  vast  and  all-comprehensive  unitary  system 
proceeds  by  threefold  divisions,  the  most  general  of 
which  are:  "The  Science  of  Logic;  the  Philosophy  of 
Nature;  the  Philosophy  of  Spirit — ending  in  the  abso- 
lute philosophy — a  sphere  of  spheres  self-enclosed." 

The  school  of  Hegel  was  soon  divided  into  a  right 
wing  claiming  to  be  theLsjJjc,*  and  a  left  wing  leading 
to  pantheism. 

Hegelianism  has  had  a  tremendous  influence  on 
theology.  To-day  the  field  is  divided  between  Neo^ 
Kantianjsm  and_Neq-Hege]ianism  with  just  at  present 
a  decided  preference  for  Neo-Kantianism.  Each  school 
has  great  strength  and  great  weakness.  The  philosopher 
who  can  utilize  them  both,  avoiding  the  agnosticism 
of  the  one  and  the  pantheism  of  the  other,  and  give 
the  world  a  new  concept,  may  yet  appear. 

Philosophical  p^esaimism  as  taught  by  Schopenhauer 
and  Hartmann  is  one  of  the  strange  phenomena  of  the 
present  time.  The  ideas  are  clearly  set  forth  by  Sully: 
Pessimism,  and  more  popularly  by  Saltus:  The  Philos- 
ophy of  Dise?icha?itment. 
*See  Stirling:  The  Secret  of  Hegel.     2  vols. 


430    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  latest  exponent  of  pessimism  is  Nietzsche^  who 
at  present  has  a  considerable  following.  But  all  expe- 
rience seems  to  teach  that  a  philosophy  of  despair  and 
selfishness  cannot  long  be  seriously  entertained  by  the 
men  and  women  who  are  doing  the  world's  hard 
work.  It  can  possibly  serve  some  purpose  in  toning 
down  the  visionary  and  keeping  him  in  sight  of  the 
stern  facts  of  life. 

The  reader  will  find  the  best  review  of  the  philos- 
ophy of  the  last  century  from  the  Hegelian  point  of 
view  in  Caird:  "Philosophy,"  in  The  Progress  of  the 
Century,  pp.  145-170. 

Theology 

The  state  of  theology  was  fully  as  bad  as  that  of 
philosophy,  and  there  was  just  as  little  possibility  that 
it  could  resist  important  innovations.  These  innova- 
tions were  to  be  the  outcome  of  past  history.  The 
various  lines  of  personal  influence  are  to  converge  in 
an  epoch-maker — an  exact  contemporary  of  Hegel. 
We  are  thus  led  to  notice: 

a.  Schleiermacher 

In  his  composition  are  to  unite  the  influences  of 
Plato,  Spinoza,  Herder,  Jacobi,  and  the  Moravians,  to 
bring  out  a  deeply  religious  nature.  He  could  not 
accept  any  of  the  current  systems.  Something  was  to 
be  given  up,  but  essentials  were  to  be  saved.  To  him 
there  was  a  difference  between  ethics  and  religion — 
but  rationalism  identified  them.  Moreover  Christian 
experience  with  him  was  basal  and  it  did  not  need  to 
be  bolstered  up  by  propositions  that  were  foreign  to  it. 
But  orthodoxy  was  intruding  at  this  point.  To  him 
accordingly  the    fundamental    principle   of    dogmatic 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  431 

theology  became:  The  feeling  of  absolute  dependence 
upon  God.  The  business  of  theology  is  to  express 
this  feeling.  Sin  is  the  supremacy  of  the  flesh  over 
the  spirit.  Christ  came  to  reverse  this  order.  He  is 
the  only  miracle.  His  followers  become  co-workers 
with  Him.  Through  Him  will  come  about  the  com- 
plete restoration  of  all  things. 

Schleiermacher  practically  yielded  up  the  idea  of  the 
personality  of  God— and  his  system  is  very  per- 
ceptibly pantheistic.  "It  is,"  says  Dr.  Fisher,  "a  sys- 
tem such  that  one  is  at  a  loss  whether  to  call  it 
Christianity  leavened  with  pantheism  or  pantheism 
leavened  with  Christianity."* 

b.    The  Hegelian  School 

Hegel,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  philosopher  of  abso- 
lute idealism.  The  knowledge  of  the  absolute  is  the 
essence  of  religion.  In  his  system  intellect  has  the 
fundamental  place  just  as  feeling  is  fundamental  with 
Schleiermacher. 

Among  the  great  men  who  carried  the  Hegelian 
philosophy  into  theology  we  should  mention: 

7.  Strauss 

Hegel  without  intending  to  oppose  Christianity 
had  made  nothing  of  the  historical  Christ,  but  con- 
sistently with  his  idealism  the  ideal  Christ  was  all  in 
all.  The  step  then  was  short  to  the  position  of  Strauss 
that  Christ  was  but  an  idea.  His  life  of  Christ  appeared 
in  1835,  ^^  which  he  developed  the  mythical  theory  as 
an  explanation  of  the  Gospel  narratives.  The  work 
created    consternation   in    Germany — and    called    out 

*See  H.  C.  D.,  pp.  502-511,  for  excellent  summary  of  his  theo- 
logical system. 


432     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

numerous  replies — notably  that  of  Neander  in  his  life 
of  Jesus.  His  positions  were  soon  completely  shat- 
tered and  Strauss  died  a  deeply  disappointed  man.* 

2.  Biblical  Criticism 

We  have  seen  that  the  pietists  urged  that  the  Scrip- 
tures could  not  be  understood  by  intellectual  processes, 
and  how  they  sought  to  keep  them  from  critical  exam- 
ination. But  the  new  developments  of  literary  criticism 
were  destined  to  become  universal,  and  the  Scriptures 
were  to  come  in  with  the  rest.  The  result  has  been  a 
violent  shaking  of  the  older  theories  of  inspiration. 

The  great  master  in  New  Testament  criticism  was 
Ferdinand  Christian  Baur  (1792-1860).  He  was  a  con- 
sistent disciple  of  Hegel,  proceeding  according  to  the 
formula:  "Thesis,  antithesis,  synthesis."  Peter  and 
Paul  engaged  in  a  conflict.  Each  of  them  founded  a 
school.  Naturally  the  situation  gave  rise  to  numerous 
writings,  partisan  or  conciliatory.  The  purpose  of  the 
Book  of  the  Acts  was  to  harmonize  the  two  factions. 
Thus  the  principle  of  design  is  introduced.  The 
same  principle  is  also  applied  to  the  Gospels. 

Out  of  this  conflict  arose  the  church  based  on  Corin- 
thians, Romans  and  Galatians,  which  are  genuine 
Pauline  Epistles. 

In  the  Old  Testament  Reuss,  Wellhausen,  Keunen 
and  others  followed  a  similar  course. 

Writers  in  a  pietistic  tone,  yet  seeking  to  approach 
the    subject    in    a   scientific    spirit,    were    Ewald    and 

*See  Kriiger:  "David  Frederick  Strauss,"  pp.  514-535,  Am. 
Jour.  Theol.,  Vol.  IV.  Christlieb:  Modern  Doubt  and  Chris- 
tian Belief.  A  masterly  review  of  this  entire  period.  Ulrici: 
David  Frederick  Strauss,  A  review  from  the  view-point  of  phil- 
osophy. 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  433 

Neander.  Still  more  conservative  were  Delitsch, 
Lange,  Meyer,  and  Olshausen.  The  old  views  survived 
in  the  school  of  Hengstenberg. 

c.  The  Mediating  School  * 

The  origin  of  the  Mediating  School  was  due  very 
largely  to  Schleiermacher.  It  consists  of  a  group  of 
distinguished  men  so  numerous  and  so  divergent  in 
views  that  it  is  difficult  to  think  of  them  as  a  school. 
Among  them  are  Neander  the  historian;  Tholuck  and 
Bleek,  the  exegetes;  Nitzch,  Julius  Miiller,  Rothe, 
Dorner,  and  perhaps  Ritschl,  theologians.  They 
were  not  eclectics  "making  a  patchwork  out  of  con- 
flicting systems."  They  held  tenaciously  to  the 
supernatural  revelation,  and  the  faith  of  the  Gospels, 
which  they  thought  they  could  do  in  perfect  con- 
sistency with  the  spirit  of  scientific  investigation. 
To  them  divergence  in  doctrine  is  no  reason  for  dis- 
solving fellowship. 

They  maintain:  The  personality  of  God;  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone  and  the  consequent  Christian  life 
issuing  in  good  works;  the  divinity  of  Christ;  the 
inspiration,  but  not  the  inerrancy,  of  the  Scriptures; 
the  miracles  of  Scripture  including  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus. 

d.  Albrecht  Ritschl  {1822-1889) 

LITERATURE 

Otto  Ritschl:  Albrecht  RitschV s  Leben. 

Orr:  The  Riischlia?i  Theology.  In  this  book  will  be 
found  a  complete  bibliography  of  Ritschlianism.  Un- 
favorable. 

*See  Fisher:  History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  pp.  512-530. 
Best  outline. 


434    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Garvie:  T/ie  Ritschlian  Theology.     Unfavorable. 
Swing:   TJie  Theology  of  Ritschl.     Favorable. 

The  origin  of  Ritschlianism  is  found: 

1.  In  his  intellectual  forerunners — Kant,  Schleier- 
macher,  and  Baur  to  whose  school  he  belonged 
originally. 

2.  In  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  needs  of  his  age. 
Metaphysical  theology  had  run  its  course  and  ended 
in  barrenness  and  spiritual  deadness.  Reason  had 
fallen  into  disrepute,  and  positive  science  had  the 
field.  But  science  was  not  able  to  furnish  an  adequate 
basis  for  religious  certainty  which  our  very  constitu- 
tion demands.  The  cry  of  the  age  was,  "Back  to 
Kant." 

Ritschl  offered  this  fundamental  certainty  "by  cut- 
ting off  all  transcendental  considerations,  and  by  pro- 
fessing to  derive  everything  from  historical  revelation 
in  Christ  by  its  practical  and  ethical  conception  of  the 
kingdom  of  God;  by  claiming  that  it  was  the  true 
Lutheranism;  by  its  almost  mystical  enthusiasm;  by 
its  promise  of  a  solution  of  the  world-problem." 

The  followers  of  Ritschl  differ  very  widely  among 
themselves.  Many  of  them — Kaftan,  for  example — 
give  up,  at  least  for  the  present,  any  ultimate  explana- 
tion of  things,  and  hardly  escape  agnosticism. 

The  school  as  represented  by  Harnack,  Kaftan,  and 
Herrmann  is  at  the  front  in  Germany,  and  this  is 
hardly  less  so  in  England  and  America. 

Applied  Christianity 

Although  the  mind  of  Germany  was  absorbed 
mainly  with  fundamental  speculative  problems,  the 
immediate  practical  interests  of  men  and  women  were 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present   435 

not  entirely  overlooked.     There  were  two  movements 
having  this  especially  in  view: 

1.  The  Deaconesses.  Founded  by  Fleidner;  object, 
to  train  young  women  to  care  for  widows  and  children, 
sick  and  poor. 

2.  The  Inner  Mission.  Founded  by  Wichern  (1783); 
object,  to  care  for  the  bodies  of  men  and  preach  the 
Gospel  to  those  who  neglect  the  church,  and  to  reform 
church  life. 

C.  THE  UNION  OF  THE  REFORMED  AND  LUTHERAN 
CHURCHES 

From  the  beginning  of  the  revolt  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland  there  had  been  two  more  or  less  hostile 
parties  among  the  reformers — the  Reformed  and  the 
Lutheran.  This  unfortunate  division  had  been  very 
detrimental  to  interests  that  were  mutual.  We  have 
seen  that  Luther  and  Zwingli  were  kept  apart  by  their 
views  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  But  at  last  in  August, 
1817,  the  union  was  effected  at  Nassau,  In  the  fol- 
lowing month  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia,  in 
view  of  the  approach  of  the  three-hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  the  Reformation,  which  was  to  be  celebrated 
October  31,  1817,  made  an  appeal  to  the  clergy  in 
which  he  urged  that  union  would  give  the  celebration 
a  new  meaning.  The  effect  of  the  appeal  was  mag- 
ical, and  in  many  places  the  union  became  a  reality. 
The  two  parties  united  in  the  administration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  The  word  "Evangelical"  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  words  "Reformed"  and  "Lutheran." 
The  purpose  of  the  union  was  not  to  destroy  peculiar- 
ities of  belief,  but  to  promote  mutual  toleration,  and 
to   secure   the    proper   administration    of    the    Lord's 


436     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Supper.  Thus  there  was  left  the  largest  liberty  for 
both  Lutherans  and  Reformed. 

But  in  1821  a  new  liturgy  was  introduced,  and 
trouble  began.  The  Romanist  mass  was  suggested  to 
the  Reformed,  and  it  appeared  fundamentally  Calvin- 
istic  to  the  Lutherans,  who  were  led  by  Dr.  Schiel  of 
Breslau.  They  were  unjustly  persecuted,  and  many  of 
them  emigrated  to  America.  Those  who  remained  at 
home  perpetuate  Lutheranism  to  our  own  days. 

The  power  of  the  princes  was  afterwards  consider- 
ably modified  by  synodal  constitutions.  "Since  1870 
the  petty  jurisdictions  have  been  necessarily  central- 
ized, and  the  drift  of  all  this  ecclesiastical  procedure  is 
to  make  the  emperor  the  pope  of  Germany"  (Jen- 
nings: M.  C.  H.,  Vol.  II,  p.  222). 

D.    OTHER    FORMS   OF    FAITH 

Calviiiism 

The  situation  at  Geneva  has  been  vacillating.  The 
movements  have  been  pietistic,  rationalistic,  and  reac- 
tionary. In  1817  the  "Venerable  Company"  were 
accused  of  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

The  situation  in  France  has  been  similar. 

In  Holland  there  has  been  a  schism  which  took  place 
in  1839.  It  was  occasioned  by  the  rise  of  rationalism. 
Orthodoxy  is  led  by  Kuyper.  The  rationalistic  side 
was  led  by  Kuenen.  There  is  also  a  third  or  mediating 
party  led  by  Van  Oosterzee. 

The  Walde?isiafis 

The  Waldensians  survived  the  storm  of  the  Refor- 
mation, and  are  now  the  leading  Protestant  organiza- 
tion  in   Italy.      They   have   a  flourishing   school    and 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  437 

theological  seminary  at  Florence,  under  the  direction 
of  such  men  as  Luzzi  and  Comba.  Doctrinally  they 
are  Calvinistic. 

E.    ROMANTICISM 

We  have  marked  the  rise  and  prevalence  of  rational- 
ism and  materialism  in  the  eighteenth  century.  We 
have  seen  individualism  go  to  the  last  extreme.  It 
touched  all  phases  of  life — art,  science,  history  and 
the  church.  Its  exclusive  utilitarianism  had  destroyed 
all  high  ideals,  and  reduced  everything  to  the  level  of 
a  dull  and  depressing  prose.  It  was  one  of  the  fruits 
of  the  illumination.  It  could  only  be  a  question  of 
time  till  outraged  human  nature  would  rebel  against 
this  unnatural  thraldom. 

The  reaction  coincides  with  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  is  known  as  romanticism. 
It  was  social  in  its  nature,  and  was  as  much  secular  as 
religious,  and  its  influence  is  seen  in  the  development 
of  both  secular  and  religious  ideas,  also  almost  equally 
in  Protestantism  and  Romanism.  When  this  reaction 
came  it  was  as  thorough  as  rationalism  had  been — and 
took  complete  possession  of  the  field.  Almost  every- 
thing that  rationalism  had  discarded  and  covered  with 
contempt  romanticism  put  to  the  front  and  covered 
with  honor.  As  in  the  fifteenth  century  we  had 
a  renaissance  of  classical  antiquity  so  now  in  the 
nineteenth  century  we  have  a  renaissance  of  medias- 
valism.  The  imagination  is  once  more  free.  Ignor- 
ing the  minute  or  offensive  details  in  the  individual 
and  in  life,  it  seeks  the  general  impression  that 
comes  from  humanity  in  the  lump,  and  giv^es  us  the 
ideally    perfect     picture.      In    the    preceding    period 


438    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

rationalism  had  scoffed,  now  it  is  the  turn  of  romanti- 
cism to  laugh  and  with  more  refinement  to  satirize. 

This  return  to  medisevalism  naturally  made  ro- 
manticism congenial  to  Romanism  but  dangerous  to 
Protestantism,  since  one  of  the  achievements  of 
the  Reformation  was  escape  from  the  fetters  of 
medisevalism.  And  the  results  were  seen  in  the 
era  of  good  feeling  that  was  ushered  in.  Protes- 
tants began  to  think  that  after  all  they  had  very 
much  in  common  with  Romanists,  and  for  many 
of  them  the  middle  wall  of  partition  was  broken 
down  and  they  went  over.  Among  these  were 
Frederick  Schlegel  (1772-1829),  Lewis  Tieck  (1773- 
1853),  and  Werner. 

But  the  movement  at  last  went  to  its  extreme.  The 
pitcher  goes  to  the  well  until  it  is  broken.  Now  the 
pendulum  swings  back  towards  rationalism,  and 
romanticism  is  destroyed  by  a  great  liberal  movement 
in  the  midst  of  which  we  find  ourselves  still  at  the 
opening  of  the  new  century.  But  we  have  not  gone 
back  to  the  position  of  the  earlier  illumination.  We 
have  come  to  "the  idea  of  corporate  freedom  as  the 
most  valuable  expression  of  individual  freedom."* 

B.  Church  Development  in  England 

The  nineteenth  century  in  England  has  been  charac- 
terized by  steady  progress  in  all  the  great  noncon- 
formist bodies;  by  the  great  missionary  revival  led  by 
William  Carey;  and  by  important  divergences  within 
the  establishment — the  most  far-reaching  of  which  is 
the  Oxford  Movement. 

In  the  Church  of  England  we  have: 

*See  Sohm:  O.  C.  //.,  pp.  212-254,  ^ov  a  masterly  and  brilliant 
outline  of  romanticism,  liberalism,  and  the  outlook. 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  439 


A.    THE    BROAD    CHURCH 

Here  we  have  the  spirit  of  Latitudinarianism 
revived  under  the  leadership  of  Samuel  Taylor  Cole- 
ridge (1772-1834).  The  purpose  of  the  Broad  church 
was  to  be  so  comprehensive  as  to  take  in  all  good  men 
without  insistence  on  specific  points  of  doctrine — such 
as  the  historic  episcopate.  This  doctrine  was  a  matter 
of  expediency  rather  than  of  necessity. 

The  great  men  were:  Richard  Whately  (1787-1863); 
Thomas  Arnold  (1795-1842);  F.  D.  Maurice  (1805- 
1872);  Charles  Kingsley  (1819-1875);  A.  P.  Stanley 
(1815-1881);  H.  H.  Milman  (1791-1868);  F.W.Rob- 
ertson (1816-1853). 

B.    THE    LOW    CHURCH 

It  put  the  emphasis  on  the  evangelical  side  of  Chris- 
tianity, rather  than  the  theological  and  ecclesiastical. 
It  paid  little  attention  to  the  efficacy  of  the  sacra- 
ments, or  to  the  historic  episcopate.  It  sought  to  bear 
fruit  in  the  every-day  lives  of  men.  Its  chief  center 
was  Cambridge.  Its  leading  men  were  William 
Romaine  (1714-1795);  John  Newton  (1725-1807);  Rob- 
ert Cecil  (1748-1810);  Thomas  Scott  (1747-1821);  Wil- 
liam Wilberforce  (1759-1833)  and  William  Cowper, 
the  poet  (1731-1800). 

C.    THE   OXFORD    MOVEMENT 
LITERATURE 

Church :   The  Oxford  Movancnt. 

Hunt:  Religious  Thought  iu  England  in  the  Nineteeyith 
Century.  Claims  to  be  simply  a  record  of  facts  not  a 
judgment.     Valuable. 


440     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Thureau-Dangin:  Nezvman  et  le  Movement  d  Oxford. 
Recent,  from  the  Romanist  point  of  view. 

Wakeling:   The  Oxford  Moveme?it. 

Abbott:  The  Anglicaji  Career  of  Cardinal  Newman. 
2  vols. 

Wakeman:  Hist.  Ch.  of  England,  pp.  457-494. 

Nippold:  The  Papacy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Chap, 
on  the  Oxford  Movement. 

The  Oxford  Movement  was  a  general  Anglican 
revival  which  sought  a  middle  way  between  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  Roman  church.  It  turned 
out  to  be  a  violent  reaction  towards  Rome,  in  which 
many  of  the  leading  Anglican  divines  and  laymen 
went  over  to  Romanism,  and  in  which  the  High 
church  took  its  rise.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Anglo-Catholic  revival,  sometimes  the  Tractarian 
Movement.  It  was  the  great  English  theological 
movement  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  causes  of  this  reaction  are  numerous.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  Reformation  in  England  was  not 
entirely  revolutionary;  that  at  the  close  Anglicanism 
and  Romanism  still  had  very  much  in  common.  The 
Oxford  Movement,  then,  is  an  inheritance  of  the 
Romish  ideas  that  survived  the  Reformation. 

Another  cause  is  the  prevalence  of  romanticism, 
which  had  spread  through  England  as  well  as  the  con- 
tinent, and  which  found  its  best  expression  in  the 
widely  read  romances  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Moreover,  the  principles  of  Latitudinarianism  which 
lingered  on  in  the  Broad  church  were  working  under 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  historic  episcopate, 
and  other  doctrines  bearing  directly  on  the  lives  of  the 
communicants. 

There    were   also    political    reasons    unfavorable   to 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  441 

Anglicanism  found  in  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832.  The 
whole  drift  of  things  seemed  to  the  conservatives  to 
be  towards  license  and  even  anarchy. 

The  leaders  of  the  movement  were  Keble,  Richard 
Hurrell  Froude,  Church,  Newman,  and  Pusey. 
Impressed  with  urgent  need  of  the  instruction  of  the 
people,  they  began  in  1833  to  issue  Tracts  for  the 
Times.  They  knew  at  the  beginning  exactly  what 
they  wanted  to  do.  Starting  from  the  Thirty-Nine 
Articles  they  proceeded  to  find  what  they  looked  for 
by  a  careful  study  of  the  Fathers  and  church  history. 

The  result  was  a  division  within  the  movement. 
The  promoters  were  immediately  charged  with  heading 
towards  Romanism.  This  was  denied,  but  it  was  true 
nevertheless. 

The  crisis  was  precipitated  by  tract  Number  Ninety, 
written  by  Newman  in  1841.  The  purpose  of  the  tract 
was  to  prove  that  the  Church  of  England  was  a  branch 
of  the  true  church,  and  that  "the  Thirty-Nine  Articles 
may  be  harmonized  with  the  Decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent." 

But  Newman  was  not  permitted  to  interpret  the 
Articles  as  he  wished,  and  he  was  thus  led  to  resign 
his  parish  at  Oxford  in  1843,  ^^i^  withdraw  to  private 
life  at  Littlemore. 

In  1845  he  began  his  celebrated  essay  on  Doctrinal 
Development.  Says  he:  "As  I  advanced  my  views  so 
cleared  that  instead  of  speaking  any  more  of  the 
'Roman  Catholics'  I  boldly  called  them  Catholics. 
Before  I  got  to  the  end  I  resolved  to  be  received,  and 
the  book  remained  in  that  state  in  which  it  was  then — 
unpublished." 

Newman  was  followed  by  Manning — and  the  number 
of  secessions  became  startling.     In  1852  Oxford  lost 


442     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

ninety-two  members,  sixty-three  of  whom  were  divines; 
Cambridge,  forty-three,  nineteen  of  whom  were 
divines.  In  1862  the  number  had  increased  to  eight 
hundred  and  sixty-seven,  two  hundred  and  forty-three 
of  whom  were  divines.  It  included  ahnost  exclusively 
persons  of  note — military  men  and  nobles,  members  of 
Parliament  and  men  in  the  professions.  It  became  a 
fashion  in  the  upper  world.  Cardinal  Wiseman  said 
that  "it  found  most  difficult  entrance  and  the  most 
sterile  soil  in  the  middle  and  industrial  classes." 

But  about  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  tract  Num- 
ber Ninety  the  opposition  of  the  Anglican  bishops 
became  so  strong  that  the  publication  of  the  tracts  was 
discontinued.  When  at  last  Newman  went  over  and 
others  followed,  the  condemnation  of  Puseyism,  as  the 
movement  now  began  to  be  called,  became  decided 
and  emphatic.  But  Puseyism  was  destined  to  live  on 
in  the  High  church  of  our  own  times. 

Pusey  and  Keble  remained  as  the  leaders  in  the  war 
against  Romanism,  Low-churchism,  and  Noncon- 
formity. 

D.    THE   REVIVAL   OF    MISSIONS 
LITERATURE 

Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference :  Reports.  April  and 
May,  1900.     2  vols.     Very  important. 

Dennis:  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress.  2  vols. 
Indispensable. 

Pierson:   The  Modern  Mission  Century. 

During  the  period  of  the  Reformation  the  conflict 
was  so  strenuous  that  little  strength  was  left  for  the 
extension  of  the  kingdom  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
professing  Christendom. 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  443 

After  the  Reformation  in  England  the  Noncon- 
formists were  for  a  long  time  completely  absorbed  in 
maintaining  an  existence,  and  in  perfecting  their 
organizations.  But  as  soon  as  this  groundwork  was 
done,  the  true  and  essential  spirit  of  the  Gospel 
asserted  itself  with  irresistible  power. 

This  spirit  expressed  itself  in  a  humble  shoemaker, 
who  by  persistent  application  in  the  midst  of  his  daily 
toil  made  himself  a  scholar.  This  man  was  William 
Carey. 

In  the  face  of  discouragements  from  older  men  who 
should  have  been  his  supporters  he  formed  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  at  Kettering  in  1792.  Carey  and 
Thomas  arrived  at  Calcutta  in  1793;  Marshman  and 
Ward  in  1799.  The  first  convert,  Krishna  Pal,  was 
baptized  on  December  28,  1800.  This  enterprise 
inaugurated  by  Carey  was  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury of  missions. 

The  London  Missionary  Society  was  established  in 
1795  by  Dr.  Bogue,  a  Congregationalist  minister.  It 
was  undenominational,  and  began  its  work  among  the 
South  Sea  Islanders. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  was  founded  by  the 
Episcopalians  in  1799. 

The  Methodists'  missionary  work  first  took  form  in 
1799.     Active  work  began   in  1811,  in  Western  Africa. 

C.  Church  Development  in  America 

The  most  righteous  war  is  always  appalling  in  its 
progress  and  direful  in  its  immediate  consequences. 
The  exhaustion  that  comes  from  war  cannot  be  over- 
come for  generations,  and  every  form  of  activity  is 
paralyzed  at  its  source.  It  is  only  long  afterwards 
that  the  beneficial  results  begin  to  be  clearly  seen. 


444    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

The  war  of  the  American  Revolution  was  no  excep- 
tion to  the  rule.  A  distinct  advance  had  been  made  in 
the  evolution  of  humanity,  but  humanity  was  at  once 
confronted  with  new  and  perplexing  problems  of 
reconstruction  in  both  church  and  state.  Human 
nature  was  still  frail,  and  human  faculties  were  still 
limited.  And  yet  institutions  were  to  be  established 
the  like  of  which  the  world  had  not  yet  seen.  The 
ideas  of  the  old  world,  good,  bad  and  mixed — more 
often  mixed — had  crossed  the  Atlantic.  There  was  to 
be  a  clashing  and  a  sifting,  and  ideas  were  to  take 
rank  at  the  end  of  a  long  and  painful  process  according 
to  their  fitness.  Fortunately  the  weapons  in  the  con- 
flict for  nearly  a  hundred  years  were  to  be  mainly 
intellectual  and  spiritual  rather  than  carnal.  Then 
was  to  come  the  most  terrible  civil  war  in  history, 
with  its  immediate  evil  consequences.  But  it  was  to 
result  in  universal  freedom,  and  in  the  final  establish- 
ment of  the  world's  first  great  national  state. 

A.     THE    REIGN    OF   SKEPTICISM 

Among  the  bad  influences  that  came  in  was  deism 
of  both  the  English  and  French  types.  It  found  a 
lodgment  in  the  colleges  of  the  country.  Students 
took  the  names  of  noted  deists,  and  French  material- 
ists. For  a  time  it  looked  as  if  the  colleges  had 
become  the  nurseries  of  infidelity.  This  infidelity  was 
diffused  among  the  people,  and  soon  it  began  to  bear 
its  customary  fruits  in  the  declension  in  morals  every- 
where. This  great  spiritual  depression  extended  it- 
self all  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  it  spread  far  into 
the  interior.  Kentucky  in  the  Cumberland  region  was 
notoriously  bad.  So  discouraging  was  the  general 
condition  that  many  persons,  even  as  distinguished  as 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  445 

Chief  Justice  Marshall,  seriously  considered  the  ques- 
tion of  giving  up  religion. 

B.     THE   GREAT   REVIVALS    (1796-I8O3) 

But  all  experience  goes  to  show  that  no  form  of  infi- 
delity can  remain  permanently  in  the  ascendency. 
Whatever  elements  of  truth  it  may  contain  will  finally 
be  repelled  and  disengage  themselves,  and  a  reaction 
will  come.  Perhaps  the  prime  mover  in  the  new 
awakening  was  President  Timothy  Dwight  of  Yale 
College,  whose  Theology  Explained  and  Defended 
in  a  Series  of  Sermo7is  extended  over  four  years. 
This  arrangement  made  it  necessary  for  those  who  took 
the  college  course  to  hear  the  entire  series.  The 
influence  of  these  sermons  was  immediate  and  far- 
reaching.  The  results  were  speedy.  The  number  of 
professing  Christians  was  raised  from  twelve  to  ninety, 
many  of  whom  became  candidates  for  the  ministry. 

The  spirit  of  the  awakening  manifested  itself 
throughout  New  England  and  through  the  west  and 
the  south.  The  leaders  of  this  revival  had  profited  by 
the  mistakes  of  the  Great  Awakening,  and  the  move- 
ment proceeded  on  the  whole  with  much  less  emotion. 
Yet  there  were  communities  in  which  individuals  were 
strongly  affected  in  different  ways.  They  laughed, 
wept,  fainted,  went  off  in  trances,  and  were  "jerked." 

But  all  these  emotional  disturbances  and  abnor- 
malities were  only  incidental.  The  great  revivals  of 
these  years  restored  Christianity  to  its  normal  position 
in  the  social  system.  The  way  was  now  cleared  for 
the  churches  to  grow  and  do  their  work.  Sadly 
enough  they  became  oftentimes  their  own  worst 
enemies  through  differences  and  disruptions. 


446     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 


C.    THE    DENOMINATIONS 

Eleven  religious  denominations  had  established 
themselves  in  America  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 
They  were:  The  Protestant  Episcopalians;  the 
Reformed  Dutch;  the  Congregationalists;  the  Roman 
Catholics;  the  Friends;  the  Baptists;  the  Presby- 
terians; the  Methodists;  the  German  Reformed;  the 
Lutherans;  and  the  Moravians.* 

All  these  denominations  had  much  of  the  true  spirit 
of  Christianity,  and  nearly  all  of  them  were  very 
aggressive  in  pushing  forward  their  peculiar  phases  of 
belief.  In  their  relations  to  each  other  the  emphasis 
was  usually  placed  upon  the  marks  that  distinguished 
the  denominations  rather  than  upon  those  which  they 
had  in  common.  Thus  denominational  peculiarities 
were  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  resulting 
often  in  detriment  to  the  general  cause.  Yet,  upon 
the  whole,  this  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  unmixed 
evil.  For  elements  of  truth  were  preserved  and  put  in 
their  proper  relations,  which  might  have  been  lost; 
and  while  it  kept  the  denominations  apart  it  saved 
religion  from  the  stagnation  and  internal  decay  that 
would  have  resulted  from  a  unity  that  must  have  been 
forced  and  premature  under  the  circumstances. 

Forms  of  DeTiominational  Activity 

The  general  spirit  of  beneficence  that  is  one  of  the 
essential  marks  of  Christianity  showed  itself  forth  in 
great  organizations. 

First,  missionary  boards  to  extend  a  knowledge  of 
the  Gospel.  Of  these  the  most  widely  known  in  the 
west   is    the   American    Board   of    Commissioners    for 

*See  Bacon,  p.  208. 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  447 

Foreign  Missions  organized  in  i8io,  by  the  general 
association  of  Congregational  Ministers  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Four  years  later  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  was  organized,  and  in  1846  the 
organization  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union  took  place. 

Second,  the  establishment  of  theological  seminaries 
and  the  development  of  colleges. 

Third,  attacks  upon  great  national  sins  like  slavery 
and  intemperance. 

Disruptions 

The  spirit  of  independence  which  we  saw  arise  in 
the  rival  theory  to  Romanism  in  the  Middle  Ages; 
which  asserted  itself  in  the  differences  among  the 
Reformers  on  the  continent;  which  differentiated  still 
more  into  the  nonconforming  churches  in  England — - 
was  more  than  ever  aggressive  in  the  individualism  of 
America.  This  individualism  expressed  itself  within 
the  denominations,  and  as  a  result  we  have  disruptions 
in  all  the  great  denominations,  and  even  disruptions 
within  the  disrupted  and  most  liberal.  The  single 
exception  was  the  Romanists,  who  by  tact  and  diplo- 
macy have  so  far  managed  to  avoid  any  open  rupture. 
Among  these  we  may  mention: 

a.    The  Presbyterians 

At  the  beginning  the  Presbyterians  co-operated  with 
the  Congregationalists.  But  there  were  soon  two 
theological  types,  each  very  strong,  within  the  church. 
The  first  was  the  strict  Scotch-Irish  element.  The 
second  was  the  more  liberal  Calvinism  which  had 
grown  up  in  the  New  England  theology.  The 
stricter  type  accused  the  more   liberal  of  heresy,  and 


448     A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

such  a  noble  and  sweet-spirited  man  as  Albert  Barnes 
was  tried  for  his  heterodoxy.  The  result  was  a  divi- 
sion in  1833  into  the  Old  School  and  the  New  School — 
represented  respectively  by  Princeton  and  Union 
Theological  Seminaries. 

Another  division  of  the  Presbyterians  was  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  It  took  place  in 
1810.  It  came  about  in  this  way:  The  Presbyterian 
church  had  always  stood  for  an  educated  ministry,  for 
predestination  and  a  limited  atonement.  When  the 
great  revivals  occurred  in  Kentucky  in  1797  the  supply 
of  ministers  was  not  sufficient.  Ministers  were 
accordingly  ordained  whose  education  the  Cumber- 
land Presbytery  thought  to  be  inadequate.  The  result 
was  a  division  which  was  less  strict  in  the  matter  of  an 
educated  ministry,  and  which  was  Arminian  in 
theology,  but  in  other  respects  was  true  to  the  West- 
minster symbols. 

d.  The  Lutherans 

Many  members  of  the  Lutheran  church  thought  that 
it  had  drifted  too  far  away  from  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion. This  feeling  grew  until  a  reaction  occurred  in 
1864  leading  to  the  "General  Council,"  which  first  met 
it  1867.  Its  members  were  strict  adherents  to  the  Con- 
fession. 

But  even  the  members  of  the  Council  were  still 
regarded  as  too  loose,  and  accordingly,  in  1872,  the 
Lutheran  Synodical  Conference  was  formed  whose 
members  were  the  strictest  adherents  to  the  Confes- 
sion. 

c.  The  Metlwdists 

Methodism  arose  to  power  during  the  Revolution, 
and  was  finally  organized  in  1784.     Its  doctrinal  stand- 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  449 

ard  was  a  modification  of  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  question  of  lay  representa- 
tion arose,  and  as  a  result  of  differences,  in  1828,  the 
Methodist  Protestant  church  formed  a  new  branch. 

d.   The  Congregationalists 

On  account  of  their  more  democratic  form  of  polity 
the  Congregationalists  and  the  Baptists  were  less  sub- 
ject to  schism.  Yet  they  did  not  escape.  The  Uni- 
tarians had  had  recognition  in  the  Congregational 
churches  for  a  long  time.  But  the  differences  were 
greatly  accentuated  when  Henry  Ware,  who  was  a 
Unitarian,  was  made  Hollis  Professor  of  Divinity  at 
Harvard  in  1805 — a  chair  which  had  been  founded  by 
an  English  Baptist.  The  Trinitarians  refused  to  fel- 
lowship the  Unitarians,  and  the  result  was  a  new 
organization.  The  Unitarians  have  been  foremost  in 
literature.  William  Ellery  Channing  was  their  great- 
est preacher. 

But  liberalism  did  not  stop  with  the  Unitarians.  An 
intuitional  school  embodying  the  principles  of  the 
German  idealism  came  to  the  front.  It  took  the  name 
of  transcendentalism,  because  it  claimed  that  ideas 
which  are  the  essentials  in  religion  transcend  facts. 
The  most  brilliant  representative  of  this  school  was 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson.  Thus  we  have  a  disruption 
breaking  out  from  a  disruption. 

c.    The  Baptists 

The  one  important  division  among  the  Baptists  took 
place  in  1827.  Alexander  Campbell — an  Irishman 
educated  at  Glasgow — was  originally  a  Presbyterian. 
But  changing  his  views  on  baptism  he  became  a  Bap- 
tist.    He  found  himself,  however,  at  variance  with  the 


450    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

Baptists  on  the  doctrines  of  regeneration  and  the  Holy 
Spirit.  He  made  baptism  the  completing  act  in 
regeneration,  and  the  Scriptures  the  exclusive  channel 
through  which  the  Holy  Spirit  works.  He  rejected  all 
creeds.  His  followers  were  first  called  Campbellites — 
but  the  name  which  they  choose  is  Disciples.  They 
have  had  a  remarkable  growth.  In  polity  they  are 
Congregational. 

/.    The  Episcopalians 

In  1873  a  party  among  the  Episcopalians  protested 
against:  The  historic  episcopate;  the  distinction  of 
rank  between  bishops  and  presbyters;  the  real  presence 
of  the  Eucharist;  and  baptismal  regeneration.  This 
party  was  led  by  George  D.  Cummins,  assistant  bishop 
of  Kentucky.  These  differences  were  so  radical  that 
the  only  course  left  was  secession,  and  the  result  was  a 
new  branch  of  the  church  which  is  known  as  the 
Reformed  Episcopal  church. 

Thus  we  are  able  to  see  some  of  the  outworkings  of 
the  freedom  of  religious  opinion.  These  divisions 
among  Protestants  are  a  constant  source  of  supply  to 
the  Romanists  in  their  attacks  upon  Protestantism. 
But  the  results  of  the  two  systems  as  worked  out  in 
history  leave  no  choice  as  to  which  shall  be  preferred. 

g.    The  Uiiiversalists 

This  church  was  founded  by  James  Kelly  in  England 
about  1750.  Kelly  and  Murray,  his  co-laborer,  were 
both  Calvinistic  Methodists.  From  the  doctrine  of 
"the  solidarity  of  Christ  with  mankind"  Kelly  worked 
out  the  further  doctrine  of  universal  salvation.  The 
first  Universalist  church  was  organized  by  Murray  at 
Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  1779.     The  polity  of  Universal- 


From  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Present  451 

ism  is  Congregational;  its  creed,  adopted  in  1803,  is 
Trinitarian,  but  an  advanced  wing  of  its  ministers  are 
Unitarian,  The  Universalists  have  colleges  and 
theological  schools,  and  are  somewhat  active  in  mis- 
sions. 

Conclusion 

In  the  course  of  our  long  and  rapid  journey  we  have 
witnessed  the  planting  and  training  of  the  church.  We 
have  seen  its  vicissitudes — its  mistakes,  its  humilia- 
tions, its  triumphs.  The  story  is  one  of  the  disen- 
tanglement and  of  the  liberation  of  truth  from  error. 
There  are  periods  of  terrible  darkness  and  of  hopeless- 
ness, but  in  every  case  the  light  has  come  and  shone 
at  last  more  clearly  than  ever  before. 

The  history  of  the  church  when  profoundly  and 
sympathetically  studied  has  no  place,  for  the  pessi- 
mist. After  two  thousand  years  of  experience,  which 
constantly  approaches  but  never  becomes  repetition, 
the  student  ought  to  forecast  the  ever-brightening  and 
happier  future  with  the  certainty  and  almost  the  pre- 
cision of  science. 

The  agitations  which  trouble  so  many  good  people 
to-day  are  allayed  the  moment  they  take  a  long  and 
large  view  of  history.  There  has  always  been  "unrest 
in  the  theological  world,"  and  there  will  be  until  the 
millennium.  The  traveler  who  makes  his  first  voyage 
on  an  ocean  liner  is  disturbed  by  the  rolling  and  pitch- 
ing of  the  iron  monster.  He  fears  she  will  turn  over. 
But  soon  he  learns  that  this  is  the  way  she  gets  on 
through  the  billows.  The  storms  of  history  have 
severely  tried  the  Ark  of  God,  tossing  it  to  and  fro,  but 
it  has  weathered  them  all.  The  sailing  of  the  future 
will  be  over  calmer  seas  and  under  more  genial  skies. 


452    A  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church 

True,  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century  we 
find  no  organic  unity  among  the  great  religious 
denominations.  But  when  we  note  the  marvelous 
achievements  of  Christian  civilization  taken  as  a 
whole,  and  see  how  each  denomination  has  empha- 
sized and  conserved  some  essential  elements  of  truth; 
as  we  witness  the  beautiful  spirit  of  Christian  love 
that  now  reigns  almost  supremely;  as  we  behold  the 
glowing  and  growing  enthusiasm  of  all  Christians  to 
know  just  what  the  Word  of  God  means — these  divi- 
sions are  not  to  be  deplored. 

We  must  never  forget  that,  as  sin  has  every- 
where been  present  in  history  to  mar  and  to  blast  all 
efforts  of  good  men,  so  our  fathers  had  their  natural 
limitations.  Thus  they  were  often  narrow  and  unjust 
when  they  did  not  intend  to  be  so.  Their  narrowness 
and  injustice  laid  them  open  to  the  attacks  of  the  com- 
mon adversary,  and  we  are  horrified  at  the  deeds  that 
darken  the  pages  of  Christian  history.  But  those  days 
are  past  never  to  return.  We  respect  each  other's 
conscientious  convictions,  and  unless  we  can  change 
those  convictions  by  arguments  applied  in  love,  we  are 
content  to  let  them  stand  as  they  are,  remembering 
that  we  have  a  large  common  and  immovable  Founda- 
tion on  which  we  can  stand,  and,  touching  shoulder  to 
shoulder,  move  against  the  forces  of  darkness  and 
despair. 

We  have  learned  that  it  is  not  God's  plan  to  bring 
things  to  pass  suddenly.  He  holds  all  the  forces  of 
history  in  His  omnipotent  hands,  setting  limits  to 
them  in  their  interaction  until  at  last,  guided  by  His 
infinite  wisdom,  they  accomplish  His  eternal  purposes. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Abelard,  Peter 227 

Academy,  The  Platonic. . .  264 

Adolphus,  Gustavus 369 

Adoptionism 179 

Alaric iii 

Albertus  Magnus 231 

Albigenses,  The 212,  245 

Alcuin 185 

Alexandria — 

Early  School  of 95 

New  School  of 123 

Anabaptists,  The 354 

Anglicanism 403 

Anselm 221 

Anskar 195 

Antioch,  School  of 122 

Antonines,  The 62 

Apollinarianism 138 

Apostolic  Age,  The 39 

Aquinas,  Thomas 232 

Arcadius  and  Honorius 1 1 1 

Aristotle 29 

Arius 130 

Armagh 171 

Arminius 350 

Arndt— 

True  Christiatiity 380 

Athanasius 131 

Atonement,  The — 

Abelard  on 227 

Anselm  on 225 

Aquinas  on 234 

Scotus  on 231 

Augsburg — 

Confession  of 308 

Peace  of 310 


45 


PAGK 

Augustine,    The   Church 

Father 125 

Augustine, The  Mission- 
ary     190 

Authority,  Mediaeval 240 

Baptists,  The 413 

Basedow 396 

Basle,  Council  of 259 

Baur,  F.  C 432 

Benedict  of  Nursia 152 

Bogomiles 244 

Bonaventura 231 

Boniface,  The  Missionary. .    172 
Boniface  VIII.  and  Philip 

the  Fair 215 

Book  of  Common    Prayer, 

The  First 336 

Book   of  Common   Prayer, 

The  Second 337 

British  Church— Early  De- 
velopment of 1 89 

Broad  Church,  The 439 

Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the 

Free  Spirit,  The 271 

Bullinger,  Henry 318 

Caedmon 186 

Calvin,  John 321 

The  Institutes 323 

At  Getieva '323 

The  Ecclesiastical  Ordi- 

najices 324 

Calixtus,  George 381 

Canon,  The  New  Testa- 
ment       91 

Carey,  William 443 

3 


454 


Index 


PAGE 

Cassiodorus 152 

Celsus 84 

Centralization,  Early  Steps 

in 67 

Charles  the  Great 168 

Schools  of 184 

Chalcedon,  Definition  of . . .  140 

Chivalry 194 

Christian  Literature  in  the 

Apostolic  Age 55 

Christianity  Introduced  in- 
to Britain 66 

Christian  Life  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Age 53 

Church    Discipline,    Early 

Steps  in 70 

Church  History— 

Definition 24 

Relations  to  Secular  His- 
tory    24 

Purpose  of  Outline  of . . ,  26 
Church- 
Founding  of 44 

Ordinances  of 48 

Organization  of 45 

Clement  of  Alexandria.  ...  96 

Clement  of  Rome 98 

Clerical  Celibacy 153 

Clovis,  Conversion  of 165 

Cluny 205 

Coelestius 145 

Columbianus 171 

Congregational  Church  Pol- 
ity, The 46 

Constantine 113 

Letter  of,    to  Arius   and 

Alexander 132 

Opens  Council  at  Nicaea,  134 
Constantinople,      Impor- 
tance of 146 


PAGE 

Constance,  Council  of 258 

Controversies — 

The  Arian 127 

The  Christological 137 

The  Origenistic 142 

The  Pelagian 143 

Councils,  the  Reforming. . .  257 
Counter-Reformation,  The,  362 
Court    of    High    Commis- 
sion,  The 342 

Creed,  The  Nicene 136 

Crusades,  The 217 

Cyprian 99 

Cyril  of  Alexandria 138 

Damiani,   Peter 204 

Dante  214 

Dawn  of  the  Reformation, 

The 275 

Decius  104 

Decretals,  The  False 197 

Deism 403 

Descartes 387 

Dictates    of      Hildebrand, 

The  209 

Diocletian  63 

Disciplina  Arcani ,  154 

Divisions  of     Church  His- 
tory, The 34 

Doctrinal  Development  in 

the  Apostolic  Age 49 

Dominic 248 

Dwight,  President  Timothy  445 

Ebionism 74 

Eckart,  Master 269 

Eck,  Dr 297 

Edward  VI 335 

Edwards,  Jonathan 415 

Elizabeth,   Queen   of  Eng- 
land    339 


Index 


455 


PAGK 

English,   The   Conversion 

of 171 

English    Settlements  in 

America 410 

Ephesus,  The  Council  of . ..  139 

Epistles  of  Obscure  Men..  299 

Erastianism 371 

Erigena,  John  Scotus 199 

Ernesti 398 

Eudo  de  Stella 241 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea 135 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia . . . .  136 

Eutychianism 139 

Farel  319 

Fathers,  The  Ante-Nicene 

and  Post-Nicene 120 

Fenelon  378 

Festivals,  Development  of . .   155 

Feudalism 193 

Fichte 394 

Filioque,  Controversy  con- 
cerning      182 

Francis  of  Assisi 246 

Fleidner 435 

Franks,  The  Conversion  of  120 
Freeman,  E.  A.,  quoted...  33 
French     Settlements     in 

America 410 

Forty-two  Articles,  The  . .  .  338 

Gaunilo's     Reply    to     An- 

selm 223 

General  Histories 15 

General  Church  Histories. .  16 
General   Histories  of  Doc- 
trine    18 

General   Histories  of    Phi- 
losophy    20 

General  Histories  of  Ethics,  21 

General  Histories  of  Art..  22 


PAGE 

General     Philosophies     of 

History 22 

Germans,     Conversion     of 

the 172 

Gnosticism 75 

Goch,  John  of 271 

Gomarus 350 

Gottschalk   and   the    Free- 
Will  Controversy 202 

Goths,  The  Conversion  of . .   119 

Great  Awakening,  The 415 

Gregory  the  Great 176,   178 

Gregory     VII.      (Hilde- 

brand ) 190 

Gregory  of  Tours 120 

Guyon,  Madame 378 

Hadrian  1 177 

Hales,  Alexander  of 230 

Hegel 429 

Henoticon,  The 141 

Henry  VIII 330 

Henry  of  Lausanne 243 

Henry  of  Navarre 347 

Herrnhutters,  The 385 

Hexapla,  The   97 

Hippolytus 98 

Historical     Study,     True 

Spirit  of 26 

Hooker,   Richard,    Ecclesi- 
astical Polity 344 

Hooper,  John 336 

Huguenots,  The 347 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von 299 

Humanism,  Rise  of 262 

Iconoclastic      Controversy, 

The 181 

Idealism 360 

Illumination,  The 390 

Indulgences 295 


456 


Index 


PAOE 

Innocent  III 210 

Inquisition,  The 366 

Irenaeus 98 

Jamblicus 88 

Jansen,   Cornelius 374 

Jansenism 373 

Jerusalem,  Destruction  of..  61 

Jesuits,  The 364,  375 

Jesus,   Life   and  Teaching 

of  41 

John  of  Damascus 180 

Joseph  II.  of  Austria 376 

Julian  of  Eclanum 145 

Julian  and  the  Pagan  Reac- 
tion    115 

Justinian 169 

Kant,  Immanuel 392 

Kempis,  Thomas  a 270 

Knox,  John 34S 

Lanfranc 253 

Latitudinarians,  The 405 

Literary  and  Philosophical 
Attacks  on  Christian- 
ity    83 

Lef e vre 319 

Leibnitz . 39 1 

Leo  XIII 426 

Lessing 395 

Locke,  John 389 

Lombard,  Peter 229 

Lombards,  The 167 

Lucian  of  Samosata 84 

Lull,  Raymond 217 

Luther,  Martin 293 

Luther  and  the  Human- 
ists    29S 

Luther  and  Charles  V 299 


PAGE 

Luther  at  the  Wartburg..  301 
Luther's     Appeal  to    the 

German  Nobility 297 

Luther  Against  the  Mur- 
derous Robber  Peas- 
ants   • 306 

Luther's  Marriage 306 

Luther  at  the  Conference 

of  Marburg 307 

Luther's  Death 309 

Low  Church,  The 439 

Magna  Charta 211 

Manichaeism 81 

Manning,  Cardinal 441 

Marsilius  of  Padua 215 

Martyrologies 100 

Martel,  Charles 167 

Martyr,  Justin 104 

Mary,  Queen  of  England.  .  339 

Materialism 389 

Mayors  of  the  Palace,  The,  166 

Meaux 318 

Medici,  Cosimo  de 264 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de 264 

Melanchthon,  Philip 296 

Mendicants,  The 247 

Methodism,  Rise  of 406 

Michaelis 399 

Mohammed 1 73 

Molina  373 

Molinas 377 

Monasticism — 

Origin  of 103 

Development  of 150 

Monophysitism 141 

Montanism 69 

Moravians,  The 196,  386 

"Mother     of    God,"     The 

Phrase 138 


Index 


457 


PAGE 

Mysticism,  Origin  and  De- 
velopment of 267 

Napoleon  1 420 

National    Church    Theory, 

The  45 

Neoplatonism  85 

Nestorianism 138 

Newman,  Cardinal 441 

Nicaea,  Council  of 133 

Nicholas  I. ,  Pope 198 

Nicolai 397 

Nonconformists,  The 403 

Norman  Conquest,  The. . .   253 

Occam 238 

Occasionahsts,  The 388 

Odoacer  m 

Ordinances  of  the  Church, 

The 48 

Origen 96 

Orphan    House    at    Halle, 

The 383 

Oxford  Movement,  The. .  .  430 
Oxford  Reformers,  The. ...  328 

Pascal,  The  Provincial  Let- 
ters of 375 

Patrick 171 

Paul  the  Apostle 5-1 

Paulicians,  The 183 

Pelagius i44 

Persecutions,  The 56 

Peter  the  Apostle    53 

Peter  the  Venerable 242 

Petrarch 263 

Petrobrusians,  The 242 

Philo  Judseus 31 

Pietism 3S1 

Pisa,  The  Council  of 257 

Pius  Vn ...  421 


PAGE 

Pius  IX 423 

Plato 29 

Pletho,   Gemistos 264 

Plotinus 88 

Porphyry .     88 

Presbyterians,  The 447 

Presbyterian    Church   Pol- 
ity, The 46 

Preparation  for  the  Coming 

of  the  Saviour 27 

Prophets  of  Zwickau,  The,  302 

Puritanism 403 

Pyrrho 30 

Pusey  442 

Quakers,     The,     in     Eng- 
land    404 

Quietism 377 

Quesnel,    Moral    Reflec- 
tions of 375 

Radbertus,  Paschasius 202 

Ravenna,  Exarchate  of 167 

Reformation,  The  Period  of  283 

in  Germany 292 

in  Switzerland 311 

in  England 326 

in  France 34^ 

in  Scotland 347 

in  the  Netherlands 348 

Theology  of 358 

Richelieu,  Cardinal 369 

Ritschl,  Albrecht 433 

Rival   Theory   to   the    Pa- 
pacy    212 

Robber  Synod,   The 139 

Robinson,   John 343 

Romanticism 437 

Ruysbroek,  John 270 

Saints,  Lives  of 168 


458 


Index 


PAGE 

Savonarola 270 

Schelling 428 

Schism,  The  Great 256 

Schleiermacher 430 

Schmalkald,  League  of 308 

Scholasticism 220 

Schools    of     Christian 

Thought 121 

Schopenhauer 429 

Schwenckfeldians,  The 350 

Scotus,  John  Duns 235 

Sects  of  the  Twelfth   Cen- 
tury    240 

Semi-Pelagianism 178 

Semler 308 

Socinians,  The 357 

Spanish    Settlements   in 

America 409 

Spener 381 

Spinoza 388 

State  of  the  World  at  the 

Coming  of  the  Saviour,     29 
State    of     Europe     at    the 
Opening    of    the    Six- 
teenth Century 285 

Stoicism 


■/' 


83 

Storch,  Claui    of  Zwickau,  302 

Strauss,  D.  F 431 

Suso,  Henry 270 

Swedenborgianism  401 

Tanchelm 241 

Tauler,  John 270 

Tertullian  

Tetzel 

Theodore  of  Tarsus 190 

Thirty-nine  Articles,  The. .   340 
Thirty  Years'  War,  The. . .   367 

Three  Chapters,  The. 142 

Trent,  Council  of 365 

a 


99 
295 


PAGE 

Truce  of  God,  The 194 

Twelve     Articles     of     the 

Peasant  League,  The,  305 
Tyrants  in  Third  Century, 

The  109 

Ulfilas iig^  186 

Universalists,  The 450 

Universals,  The  Doctrine  of  224 
Union  of  Church  and  State, 

Perils  of 117 

Valla,  Laurentius 265 

Vandals,  Conversion  of 119 

Verdun,  Partition  at 190 

Vernacular  Translations  of 
the  Bible 185 

Waldenses,   The 243 

War,  The  Peasants' ......  304 

Wartburg,  The 301 

Wesel,  John  of 271 

Wesley,  John 406 

Wessel,  John 271 

Westphalia,  The  Peace  of,  370 
Whitby,  The  Synod  of . . . .    171 

Wichern 345 

Wiclif,  John 273 

William  of  Orange 349 

Williams,  Roger 413 

World    Church    Theory, 

Tli^  45 

Wolf,  Christian 391 

Worms,  The  Concordat  at,  210 

Worms,  The  Diet  of 300 

Zeno  of  Citium 30 

Zinzendorf 381; 

Zwingli,  Ulrich 313 

Sixty-seven  Theses  of...  315 
Commentary    on      True 
and  False  Religion  316 


